| Citation: | Yalin LI, Chengshan WANG, Chao MA, Ganqing XU, Xixi ZHAO. Balanced cross-section and crustal shortening analysis in the Tanggula-Tuotuohe Area, Northern Tibet. Journal of Earth Science, 2011, 22(1): 1-10. doi: 10.1007/s12583-011-0152-2
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Indo-Asian collision and intracontinental deformation resulted in large crustal shortening and uplift of the Tibetan plateau. Much attention has been paid to determining the deformation, crustal shortening, and the uplift of the plateau (Wang et al., 2008, 2002; DeCelles et al., 2002, 1998; Yin and Harrison, 2000; Ratschbacher et al., 1994; Harrison et al., 1992; Dewey et al., 1989, 1988; Besse et al., 1984; Patriat and Achache, 1984; Tapponnier and Molnar, 1977; Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975). Many thrust belts and their shortening ratios have been identified in the past decades, such as 50%–66% of shortening in the Himalayan region (Murphy and Yin, 2003; Wang et al., 2001; DeCelles et al., 2001, 1998; Hauck et al., 1998; Ratschbacher et al., 1994; Schelling and Arita, 1991), 47%–57% of shortening in the Bangong-Nujiang suture (Kapp et al., 2007, 2003), 17.47%–25% of shortening in the Qiangtang terrane (Huang and Li, 2007) and 41%–43% of shortening in Fenghuoshan area (Wang et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2001). However, conflicts exist on the magnitude of crustal shortening and the relationship between the shortening and uplift of the plateau (Kapp et al., 2007, 2003), as the spatial and temporal distribution of the shortening of the whole plateau remains uncertain.
Previous research has indicated that the Tanggula-Tuotuohe area has undergone intensive deformation during the Cenozoic (Wang et al., 2002; Yin and Harrison, 2000; Leeder et al., 1988), and that the Tuotuohe basin was formed as a result of the Early Tertiary Tanggula thrusting (Li et al., 2006). However, compared to the Himalayas and other areas, the Cenozoic evolution and upper crustal shortening in this area is almost unknown. We conducted mapping at a scale of 1 : 100 000 and deformation studies in the Tanggula-Tuotuohe area (about 18 000 km2) during 2005–2009. The goals of the mapping and the studies were to evaluate the crustal shortening of the Tanggula thrust system and Tuotuohe basin. Two balanced cross-sections in the area have been constructed, which provide shortening ratios of the TanggulaTuotuohe area. The new evidence shed more light on the Cenozoic crustal shortening and uplift of the Tibetan plateau.
The Tanggula Mountains and Tuotuohe area is located in the Northern Tibet (Fig. 1). This region lies along the northern edge of the Qiangtang terrane and crosses the Jinsha suture zone. Our research covers the middle part of the Tanggula Mountains and Tuotuohe area.
The strata exposed in the study area are mainly Late Paleozoic to Cenozoic. Late Paleozoic strata include Carboniferous Zaduo Group (Cz) and Permian Kaixinling Group (Pk) (Table 1), with a thickness of more than 6 997 m (Zhang and Zheng, 1994). Late Paleozoic strata are distributed in the northern part of the study area and are unconformably overlain by the Triassic and Cenozoic strata (Fig. 1). Mesozoic strata include the Late Triassic Jieza Group (T3z) and Jurassic Yanshiping Group (J2–3y), which outcrop widely in the study area (Table 1). The Jieza Group (>1 798 m in thickness) consists mainly of clastic and carbonate sediments of shallow marine-littoral origin which are unconformably overlain by the Jurassic and Tertiary strata (Zhang and Zheng, 1994). The Yanshiping Group, with a thickness of 3 281 m, includes the Middle and Upper Jurassic strata of the Quemocuo Formation (J2q), Buqu Formation (J2b), Xiali Formation (J2x), Suowa Formation (J3s), and Xueshan Formation (J3x) (Li and Li, 2006; Bai, 1989). The Quemocuo, Xiali and Xueshan formations are mainly comprised of clastic rocks, and the Buqu and Suowa formations mainly of carbonate rocks. The Yanshiping Group sequence is continuous with conformable contacts between the formations.
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Cenozoic strata are mainly exposed in the Tuotuohe region, located north of the studied area (Fig. 1). They include Eocene Tuotuohe Formation (E2t), Oligocene Yaxicuo Formation (E2–3y) and Miocene Wudaoliang Formation (N1w) (Table 1). Among these, the Tuotuohe and Yaxicuo formations with a thickness of more than 2 645 m are mainly characterized by an association of conglomerates, sandstones and siltstones. These sediments were deposited in the Tuotuohe foreland basin during Eocene–Oligocene. The Wudaoliang Formation (< 200 m in thickness), which unconformably overlies the Yaxicuo Formation, consists mainly of lacustrine carbonate rocks. Magnetostratigraphy indicates that the periods of Tuotuohe Formation and Yaxicuo Formation deposition were 52.0–42.0 and 42–23.8 Ma respectively (Liu et al., 2005; Yi et al., 2004). The sedimentary sequence and their thickness provide a good record for the construction of balanced cross-section.
Cenozoic volcanics and intrusions are widely distributed in the studied area (Fig. 1). The volcanic rocks and intrusions consist mainly of shoshonitic to high-potassium calc-alkaline rocks and granites, and are a result of crustal shortening, thickening and melting (Duan et al., 2005; Lai et al., 2001; Ding et al., 2000; Roger et al., 2000). Their occurrence and ages are supporting evidence for Cenozoic crustal shortening and uplift of the plateau in the study area. Our investigation shows that the Tanggula thrust system, south to Geraddong-Esuima area and north to Wulwl Lake-Kendima-Baqing area, runs parallel to the Tanggula Mountains. In the study area, the Tanggula thrust system extends more than 320 km to northwest with a width of 60–80 km (Fig. 1). The tectonic style is unlike other parts of the Tanggula thrust system. According to characteristics of deformation and structure of the assemblage, it can be subdivided into three deformation zones, namely the GeraddongEsuima thrust belt (GEB), the Quemocuo-Gaina fold-thrust belt (QGB) and the Baqing-Wulwl Lake thrust (BWLB) (Fig. 1) (Li et al., 2006). The Tanggula thrust system is mainly comprised of Late Paleozoic to Cenozoic strata. The comprehensive analysis indicates that the age of the Tanggula thrust system can be confirmed as 67–23 Ma. The sequential filling, sedimentary facies and paleocurrents indicate that the Tuotuohe basin was the foreland basin of the Tanggula thrust system (Li et al., 2006).
Balanced cross-section is one of the techniques used to quantify the structural study. The principle of the technique is to reconstruct the deformation and structure at its original state, based on the geological section and geometrical rules (Chen et al., 1993; Dahlstrom, 1969). According to the principles of balanced cross-section construction, a valid way to obtain the crustal shortening ratio is to construct the relationship of the strata length and shape of the structure (Wang et al., 2001). Because of the lack of detailed geological investigation, especially the lack of seismic data in our study area, the steps of balanced cross-section restoration are as follows. (1) First, on the basis of abundant field investigation, the geological sections are constructed. (2) Second, following the laws of balanced cross-section, the original geometric shape is restored step by step keeping the invariance of layers' length, thickness and area at each step, based on the thickness, structures and marker beds of the involved strata and the assumption of no volume loss of the strata. (3) Finally, the crustal shortening ratio of the study area is calculated with line lengthbalanced technique. Owing to the inevitable loss of area during deformation and the difficulty of estimating the displacement of thrust faults, the shortening ratio represents a minimum value.
According to balanced cross-section laws, when we chose the field geological approach, the following factors have to be taken into account: (1) the geological sections are parallel to the moving direction of main thrust faults, and orthogonal to the strikes and axes of faults and folds; (2) the marker beds are easily recognized in the field and distributed widely in the area, and they remain of constant thickness. Based on the deformation styles of the Tanggula thrust system and the Tuotuohe basin, two routes were chosen for reconstructing the balanced section. These are the Esuima-Gari (AB) and the Geraddong-Sairi (CD) sections, respectively (Figs. 1, 2).
The Esuima-Gari Section is located in the eastern part of the study area, which crosses through the Tanggula thrust system and the Tuotuohe foreland basin in the south and north parts respectively (Fig. 1). Figures 2 and 3 show the route geological map and restored balanced cross-section.
Our investigation shows that the tectonic style is different in different parts of the Tanggula thrust system. It can be divided into three deformation zones in this section. The root belt is located in the south of the Esuima-Saiduo thrust fault (F2). The main strata are the Quemocuo Formation as well as Cenozoic intrusions. This belt was intensively deformed, and the strike of thrust planes is NW310°–330° with dipping angles of 62°–71° (Fig. 2, AB, Fig. 3), showing a highangle deformed imbricated thrust belt. The southern boundary of the middle belt is the Esuima-Saiduo thrust fault (F2) and the northern boundary is the Yanshiping thrust fault (F5). Large-scale folds and thrust faults are common in this belt, forming the fold-thrust association. The synclines are open, large scale while the anticlines are small and tight in the middle belt, showing the Jura-type fold association. The front belt is located between the Yanshiping thrust fault (F5) and Kendima thrust fault (F7). The deformed beds are mainly Jurassic and Triassic strata. Inclinedoverturned folds are developed compared with a series of imbricate faults dipping southwest. The field work reveals that most of the folds are cut by the thrust faults in this belt. Kendima thrust fault (F7) forms the southern boundary of the Tuotuohe basin, along which the Triassic strata are thrusted over Jurassic and Tertiary strata (Fig. 2, AB, Fig. 3).
In the Tuotuohe basin, the field work shows that the moving orientations of the thrust faults are northeast-directed in the south section and southwest in the north section (Fig. 2, AB, Fig. 3). In the southern part of the basin, the dip of thrust planes is southwest (F8–F10), with dipping angles of 51°–58°. The hanging walls are mainly exposed Permian and Carboniferous strata. In the northern part, the dip is northeast (F11–F13), with dipping angles of 30°–39°, and the hanging walls are mainly Triassic and Tertiary strata. The folds are open and broad in the inner part of the basin. The dip angles of the limbs are between 20° and 40°. The anticlines and synclines are comparably developed, with the core parts of the anticline made up of Triassic strata.
The Geraddong-Sairi Section is located in the western part of the Tanggula thrust system (Fig. 1), striking S-N. Figures 2 (CD) and 4 show the geology and structures of this section.
The root belt of the Tanggula thrust system is located in the south of Esuima-Saiduo thrust fault (F1) (Fig. 2, CD, Fig. 4). The folds are well developed in this belt; however, the thrust faults are difficult to confirm because most of the outcrops are covered by moraines, or reformed by intrusions. The middle foldthrust belt is between the Esuima-Saiduo thrust fault (F1) and Kendima thrust fault (F8), in which the main thrust faults include F2–F7. The dip of thrust planes is southwest with dipping angles of 50°–60° (Fig. 2, CD, Fig. 4). Based on our statistical results, compound folds are the main style in this belt. The large folds are open, such as the Quemocuo and Kanbataqin compound, while the small folds are tight and occur on the limbs of the compound folds. The front belt is distributed along the Kendima thrust fault (F8) and mainly consists of Jurassic Yanshiping Group, which has been thrusted over Tertiary strata along the Kendima thrust fault (Fig. 2, CD, Fig. 4) in different slices.
The Tanggula thrust system and Tuotuohe basin are delimited by F8 in this section. Our study reveals that the northern part of the basin was intensively deformed. Seven thrust faults can be identified in this section (F9–F15) with dipping angles of 50°–60° (Fig. 2, CD, Fig. 4). In the hanging wall of the thrust faults are exposed mainly Triassic and Jurassic strata.
In order to restore the shortening of the Tanggula thrust system and of the Tuotuohe basin, the Jurassic and Tertiary are reconstructed separately, according to the deformation and distribution of the strata of these two units. For estimating the shortening of the Jurassic strata, the boundary between Middle Jurassic Buqu and Quemocuo formations is used as the marker bed, since the Buqu and Quemocuo formations are characterized by association of carbonate and clastic rocks. This boundary is easily recognizable and widely exposed in the area. To estimate the shortening amount of the Tertiary strata, the boundary between the Tuotuohe and Yaxicuo formations is chosen as the marker bed. It is represented by a set of thick conglomerate beds, mainly composed of carbonate rocks, which is comparable in the basin, and is developed at the top of the Tuotuohe Formation. In addition, the expanding style of the thrust system is characterized by over-step, and a detachment surface is located at the base of the Carboniferous strata (Li et al., 2006). Furthermore, considering the deformation and the influence of thrust faults, the setscrew is located in the core of the folds. The reconstructed balanced section is shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.
Based on the restoration of balanced crosssections, the crustal shortening ratio has been calculated for the studied area with line length-balanced technique. The formula is as follows
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where R is shortening ratio; L is present length; L0 is original length.
The results show that: (1) the Jurassic strata in AB and CD sections are presently 56 and 72 km in length, while the original lengths were 156 and 147 km, respectively, indicating that the shortening is 100 and 75 km and the shortening ratios are 64% and 51%; (2) the Tertiary strata in Tuotuohe basin are currently 128 km of length in the AB section and 76 km long in the CD section. Compared to the original lengths (242 and 131 km respectively) of the Tertiary strata, this suggests that the shortening is 114 and 55 km and the shortening ratios are 47% and 42%. Consequently, the crustal shortening in the Tanggula-Tuotuohe area is 214 and 132 km with the shortening ratios of 54% and 47% (Table 2).
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The data we collected show that the Jurassic strata have undergone more intensive shortening than the Tertiary strata. The shortening is 51%–64% in the Tanggula thrust and 42%–47% in the Tuotuohe foreland basin; moreover, deformation is stronger in the eastern section (AB) than in the western section (CD). Our results are consistent with the fact that the deformation is more intensive eastward in other region, which indicates that our methods and results about crustal shortening are reasonably accurate.
Previous studies suggested that the Tanggula Mountains have been uplifted and became the northern boundary of the Paleo-Tibetan plateau in the Paleogene (Wang et al., 2008, Li et al., 2006). The discrepancy in the Jurassic and Tertiary shortening of the two sections studied shows that the Jurassic strata have undergone a little shortening (with the shortening ratio of 9%–17%) before the Tertiary, implying that the Early Tertiary is the main period of intensive tectonic deformation and shortening in the study area. The comprehensive analysis indicates that the age of the Tanggula thrust system spans 67–23 Ma (Li et al., 2006). The age of the Tuotuohe and Yaxicuo formations which are overlain by undeformed Wudaoliang Formation is 52–23.8 Ma (Liu et al., 2005; Yi et al., 2004). This suggests that the main stage of crustal shortening in the Tanggula-Tuotuohe area occurred during the Paleocene–Oligocene. Our results of the Tertiary shortening in the Tuotuohe basin are consistent with the conclusion of the Fenghuoshan basin study, which is located at the north of the Tuotuohe area, shortened by 43% since the Late Oligocene (Wang et al., 2002). Moreover, contemporaneous shortening took place in other parts of the Tibetan plateau, such as along the main boundary thrust (MBT) and the main central thrust (MCT) (DeCelles et al, 1998; Ratschbacher et al, 1994; Schelling and Arita, 1991; Coward and Bulter, 1985), the great counter thrust (GCT) (Yin et al., 1994) and the ShiquanheGaize-Amdo thrust system (SGA) (Kapp et al., 2003). In addition, the intense deformation interval of the Tanggula thrust system is coeval with the initial period of the India-Eurasia collision. Thus, it can be inferred that the regional S-N shortening is related to the IndiaAsia collision and to the subsequent subduction of the Indian plate underneath the Eurasian plate.
The period of intense deformation in the study area is contemporaneous with the ages of highpotassium calc-alkaline rocks (45–22 Ma) (Lai et al., 2001; Ding et al., 2000), syncollisional crust-mantle type granitic intrusions (67.1–23 Ma) (Duan et al., 2005; Roger et al., 2000) and with an uplift of the Tanggula Mountains (Wang et al., 2008; Li et al., 2006). Thus, it is reasonable to suggest that the crustal shortening is contemporary with the volcanism and with the uplift of the study area. Combined with Cenozoic deformation, basin development and magmatism, we can make several conclusions as follows: at the beginning of Cenozoic, the Tanggula region was intensively shortened so that the Tanggula thrust system and Tuotuohe foreland basin were formed, as the result of India-Eurasia collision. The intensive deformation led to the crust being shortened and thickened in this area. The melt of the thickened crust is attributed to a large-scale magma intrusions and highpotassium calc-alkaline volcanism. Under the tectonic and deep magma influence, the Tanggula Mountains have undergone rapid uplift and erosion during the Eocene and Oligocene, and became the major source of sediments for the Tuotuohe basin. During the Late Oligocene (23 Ma), accompanied by the shortening of the entire plateau (Coleman and Hodges, 1995), Tanggula was again extensively deformed and uplifted, resulting in an angular unconformity between the Oligocene Yaxicuo Formation and Miocene Wudaoliang Formation. That the Wudaoliang Formation lies horizontally indicates that folding and thrusting terminated since the Miocene and the whole area is subject to a whole plateau uplift. Additionally, the investigation of the quickly cooling age of the intrusions and strata of Tanggula Mountains during Paleocene– Oligocene (Wang et al., 2008), further, demonstrates that Tanggula Mountains were intensively uplifted before Miocene. Moreover, the gypsum layers are widely developed in the middle-upper part of Yaxicuo Formation (Li et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2005) suggesting that in the Middle–Late Oligocene the Tanggula Mountains rising to 4 000–5 000 m resulted in that the paleoclimate of the area north of it turned to arid environment. Moreover, the Cenozoic thrusts and foreland basins in the northern Tibetan plateau demon-strate that the uplift of the Tibetan plateau was a sequential propagation from south to north (Zhu et al., 2006; Tapponnier et al., 2001). The Tanggula thrust system is the most southern part of the large-scale thrust system, illustrating that the Tanggula Mountains have uplifted during Eocene–Oligocene and may become the northern boundary of the Eocene–Oligocene paleo-plateau.
The Tanggula-Tuotuohe area is one of the most intensively tectonically compressed regions on the Tibetan plateau. As a consequence of the India-Asia collision and subsequent shortening between the Eurasian and the Indian plates, the studied area has been intensively shortened in S-N direction during Paleogene, resulting in 51% and 42%–47% shortening ratios in the Tanggula thrust system and in the Tuotuohe foreland basin. The intensive crustal shortening resulted not only in crustal thickening, but also in large-scale magmatic intrusions and highpotassium calc-alkaline volcanicity in the area. Probably under the influence of deep forming magma, the Tanggula Mountains were rapidly uplifted and became the northern boundary of the paleo-Tibetan plateau during the Eocene–Oligocene.
This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 40672086), and the MOST 973 Project (No. 2006CB701400). We thank Zhu Lidong, Li Yong, Zhang Yuxiu and Duan Zhiming for assistance in the field. We are also thankful to Prof. Luba Jansa for comments and improvement of the manuscript.
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Yalin LI, Chengshan WANG, Chao MA, Ganqing XU, Xixi ZHAO. Balanced cross-section and crustal shortening analysis in the Tanggula-Tuotuohe Area, Northern Tibet. Journal of Earth Science, 2011, 22(1): 1-10. doi: 10.1007/s12583-011-0152-2
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