| Citation: | Tuoyu Wu, Yongtao Fu. Cretaceous Deepwater Lacustrine Dedimentary Sequences from the Northernmost South China Block, Qingdao, China. Journal of Earth Science, 2014, 25(2): 241-251. doi: 10.1007/s12583-014-0418-6
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Deepwater lacustrine deposits have been studied in the Cretaceous Songliao Basin and Eogene Bohaiwan Basin because of their importance as a potential oil reservoir (Peng, 2011; Deng, 2009; Wang et al., 2009). However, few deepwater lacustrine sequences have exposed to topographic surface in these two sedimentary basins. Comparatively, a deepwater sedimentary sequence of terrigenous siliciclastic rocks within the Sulu UHP terrane (Fig. 1a) provided good example to study deepwater lake sedimentation and record important information on regional tectonic evolution (Fig. 1b).
The outcrops of the sedimentary sequence cover an area of 4 km2 at Baxiandun, about 20 km east to downtown Qingdao (Fig. 1c). For the convenience of clarifying the geological properties of the sedimentary strata distributed in Baxiandun, it is temporally called Baxiandun strata in this paper. The Geological Bureau of Shandong Province (1991) considered the strata are fluvial facies and volcanic debris facies which belong to Cretaceous Laiyang Group or Qingshan Group; whereas Fu and Yu (2010) argued that these rocks represent Ordovician turbidity deposits. In their opinions, these sedimentary sequences can be compared to the Ordovician Yuqian and Changwu groups exposed in the northwestern part of Zhejiang Province (Zhang et al., 1982). The author primarily agreed with Fu and Yu's (2010) argument, and further noted that it should correspond to the underlain Ordovician sequence in South Yellow Sea Basin (Wu et al., 2010). However, after revisiting the field area and pertinent geochronological data coming out, the author found that the sedimentary environment and formation age of the Baxiandun strata need to be redefined.
The purpose of this paper is to clarify sedimentary facies and geochronology of the strata based on our field sedimentary observation and the detrital zircon testing result of the sedimentary rocks at the Baxiandun section. This work will be helpful to understand the deepwater sedimentation in the lake and thus provide constraints on the tectonic evolution of the boundary between the North China Block (NCB) and South China Block (SCB).
The Baxiandun Section is located in the southeastern Sulu orogen which is the collision boundary between SCB and NCB (Wang et al., 2010; Fig. 1a). The basement of the section is mainly composed of the Archean to Early Proterozoic Jiaonan metamorphic rocks (Fig. 2), which mainly deposited at about 1.8 billion years ago (Geological Bureau of Shandong Province, 1991). Owing to the collision taking place in the Late Triassic, the Jiaonan Group was involved in the subduction from SCB to NCB, which resulted in ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) metamorphism occurring at ca. 240–225 Ma (Zheng, 2008). Because of the collision, the Jiaonan Group is strongly metamorphosed, forming coesite-bearing eclogites preserved at Yangkou (Wang et al., 2010; Liou and Zhang, 1996; Ye et al., 1996), which is about 10 km north to the Baxiandun Section (Fig. 1c). Afterwards, the retrograde metamorphism occurred in this Group, and the current metamorphic degree observed within the rocks of Jiaonan Group is lower amphibolite facies. At about 190 Ma, exhumation of the upper crust brought the metamorphic rocks to the surface (Geological Bureau of Shandong Province, 1991).
Qingdao and its vicinity have been mapped as the east margin of Mesozoic Jiaolai Basin (Fig. 1b) (Zhang et al., 2008). The evolution of the basin can be divided into three stages: (1) Early Cretaceous (120–135 Ma) Laiyang stage extensional faulted basin, where river and lacustrine facies deposited; (2) Early Cretaceous Qingshan stage (106–120 Ma) continental rift basin, where four eruptive cycles of volcanic deposits developed; (3) Late Cretaceous (65–88 Ma) Wangshi stage dextral transtensional pull-apart basin, where a river face red clastic rocks featuring arid climate formed (Zhang et al., 2003; Lu and Dai, 1994; Geological Bureau of Shandong Province, 1991). Accordingly, Laiyang Group, Qingshan Group and Wangshi Group have been built up to characterize the difference in sedimentation of Jiaolai Basin (Fig. 2). It was observed that each group is separated by unconformity, and the whole basin is bounded by strike-slip faults (e.g., Wulian-Weihai-Qingdao fault on the southeast, Tanlu fault on the west) (Fig. 1b). The basement of JiaolaiBasin includes both Sulu UHP terrane and NCB, and its main source was suspected to be Sulu orogen (Gu et al., 1996). Ever since Tertiary, the Jiaolai Basin has been progressively uplifted and shrunk, so only local sedimentary deposition recorded within this area.
Magmatic activity occurred frequently from Archean to Cenozoic in the Shandong Peninsula. The most widespread intrusions are separately Neoproterozoic granitic gneiss (700–800 Ma) (Xue et al., 2006) and Mesozoic granites. The Mesozoic granites mainly includes Late Triassic M-type granite (225–205 Ma), Late Jurassic S-type granite (160–150 Ma), and Early Cretaceous I-A type granite (130–105 Ma) (compiled by Zhang and Zhang, 2007). In Qingdao and its proximal area, the intrusive rocks are dominated by Laoshan granite, a set of quartz monozite, biotite monozitic granite, syenogranite (calc-alkaline) and alkali granite (alkaline) rock suites with U-Pb zircon of Early Cretaceous (146–110 Ma) (Zhao et al., 1997).
The strata preserved in Qingdao and adjacent areas are illustrated in Fig. 2. The basement of the strata is formed by the Jiaonan Group metamorphic rocks. Subsequently, Cretaceous Laiyang Group, Qingshan Group, and Wangshi Group deposited in succession. Due to the intrusion of Laoshan granite and subsequent uplift of Jiaolai Basin, Tertiary deposits are lacking in these areas and Quaternary sediments are locally preserved (Geological Bureau of Shandong Province, 1991; Zhang and Liu, 1991).
The strata in the Baxiandun Section preserve a finingupward sequence (Fu and Yu, 2010). The sedimentary rocks vary from pebble and grit stone at lower sequence to massive sandstone, siltstone and mudstone at top of the section. The sedimentary layers dip very gently to the southeast (Fig. 3). Fu and Yu (2010) distinguished the lower and middle sequences as coarse to medium grained clastic rocks bearing turbidities. Here we focus on description of the upper sequence in the Baxiandun Section (Figs. 4, 5, 6). The geomorphology of the exposed strata consists of fault scarp, bench platform and sea cliff (Figs. 4, 5, 6), plus isolated outcrops on surrounding hills. In the upper sequence it can be divided into nine layers based on their colors, sedimentary structures and lithological characters. The characteristics of each layer are described as follow.
Layer 1 occurs at a cliff 4 to 6 m above sea level (Fig. 4a). The layer is dominated by interbedded thick quartzose arkose and nodule or band shaped chert bearing purple mudstone. Weak metamorphism and silification occur in this layer (Fig. 4b).
Layer 2 has a thickness of 3.3 m, and is dominated by interbedded thick quartzose greywacke and nodule or band shaped chert bearing purple mudstone (Fig. 4c). The base of this layer shows well-developed ripple cross bedding (Fig. 4d) and typical Bouma sequence (Ta–Td). Ta is characterized by massive or normally size-graded, sandy Bouma Ta division; Tb is a representative of parallel laminated, sandy Bouma Tb division; Tc reveals ripple/climbing-ripple laminated/convoluted, sandy Bouma Tc division; Td is mainly constituted of parallel laminated to massive siltstone, which can be compared to Bouma Td division (Fig. 4d).
Layer 3 consists of interbedded gray thick quartz sandstone and black shale in the lower part of the section. The layer has well developed ripple cross bedding (Fig. 5a). Layer 4 consists of interbedded gray middle to thin sandstone beds and quartzite. The layer shows well developed hummocky cross bedding in the gray quartzite (Fig. 5b). A conjugate joint set with the representative attitudes of 89°∠85°, and 280°∠68° are commonly present in the whole layer, reflecting domination of E-W compressional stress field.
Layers 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 crop out clearly on the Baxiandun cliff, which is about 160 m in height (Fig. 6). The sequence is generally consisted of interbedded gray middle to thin quartz sandstone and thin black or tawny siliceous mudstone or shale smaller upwards (Fig. 6). Among all these layers, Layer 5 shows well-developed ripple cross bedding and Bouma sequences at base. The well developed Bouma sequences include bands. The grain size of the strata becomes progressively Ta to Te, especially Tc. Tc has ripple/climbing-ripple laminated/convoluted, sandy Bouma Tc divisions. Conjugate joints with gentle mode are pervasive in the whole sequence of strata.
Deepwater lacustrine systems are characterized by turbidity and debris flow deposits (Weimer and Link, 1991). The sedimentation in most of them tends to be fine-grained sequences. The deepwater sedimentary facies in some Tertiary lacustrine basins are gravel-rich, turbidity deposits (Sun et al., 2007; Yan et al., 2005; Zhao et al, 2005). The thickness of sequences in balanced-fill lakes developed when the rate of sediment and water supply are equal to potential accommodation throughout time. Water inflow is periodic, and can match outflow through time, though there is considerable fluctuation. According to the observation in the Baxiandun Section, all evidences imply that the sedimentary sequence was formed by deepwater turbidity sedimentation. The sedimentary rocks are dominated by the dense interbedded quartzose sandstone and chert enriched mudstone or shale. There are few fossils in the sedimentary layers. Sedimentary structures are widely distributed and dominated by Bouma sequences and ripple cross bedding, and graded bedding in Layer 1 to Layer 5. According to the paleogeography in East China, we infer that the sequences could be deepwater lake deposits.
The major and minor elements of the rocks at Baxiandun have been analyzed in Fu and Yu (2010) and Wu et al.'s (2010) papers. According to the analyses, the collected samples are mainly shale, greywacke, and arkose. High ∑REE content (146.75–245.78 ppm), high La content (30.35–61.39 ppm), and high value of (La/Yb)N(Cl) (8.68–21.89 ppm) indicates that the characteristics of passive continental margin (Wu et al., 2010). Relative higher value of (La/Yb)N(PAAS) (0.95–2.03)implies considerable terrigenous source contribution (Wu et al., 2010). However, plot on (Fe2O3+MgO) vs. TiO2 coordinate and La-Th-Sc triangular diagram show a continental arc environment and an active continental margin (Fu and Yu, 2010).
In this paper, the SiO2/Al2O3 vs. K2O/Na2O and the (Fe2O3+MgO)/(SiO2+K2O+Na2O) plot are utilized to specify the depositional tectonic setting of Baxiandun clastic rocks. The SiO2/Al2O3 vs. K2O/Na2O relationship suggests that the source of the Baxiandun rocks were most likely derived from an evolved arc setting with a supply of felsic-plutonic detritus situated along an active continental margin (Fig. 7a). This suggestion is also supported by the petrological analyses of the Baxiandun samples. In the (Fe2O3+MgO)/(SiO2+K2O+Na2O) diagram, the proportion of quartz relative to feldspar, and the relative petrologic evolution of contributing arcs (mafic or felsic) are indicated by Al2O3/SiO2 and (Fe2O3+MgO)/(SiO2+K2O+Na2O), respectively (Fig. 7b). It is seen that most of the samples at Baxiandun mainly plot in the evolved island arc (EIA) field, but a few samples in the immature island arc (IIA) field and in the mature magmatic arc (MMA) field, which further suggests that the Baxiandun sedimentary rocks were derived from complex source regions.
In Fu and Yu's (2010) paper, negative anomaly of Ce has been used as the main evidence for the conclusion of marine facies for the Baxiandun strata. However, sedimentary rocks in both seawater and fresh water have very low concentration of Ce due to their short lifetime in these kinds of environments, in which Ce3+ can be quickly oxidized to Ce4+, and then adsorbed by Fe-Mn oxide. Hence, Ce can be eliminated from water in a short time, which results in deficiency of Ce in both two kinds of environments (Murray et al., 1991). Murray's research also shows that lacustrine environments have a relative larger Ce/Ce* value (average is 1.03). Thereby, the larger the Ce/Ce* value, the more impact of terrigenous materials have on the formation of the rocks. Because the ranges of PASS standardization and CI chondrites standardization for siliciclastic rocks at Baxiandun are 0.94–0.98 and 0.89–1.02, respectively (Wu et al., 2010), the Ce/Ce* anomaly of the rocks should belong to weak negative anomaly, which indicates that the debris of the rock origin was deposited in a deepwater lacustrine sedimentary facies.
For the sake of clarifying the formation of the sedimentary sequence at the Baxiandun Section, a representative arkosic sandstone sample, which was collected at the bottom of the section, was used for detrital zircon dating.
Zircon grains were separated at the laboratory of the Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Science. Firstly, the sample was ground to 0.1–0.2 mm grains. Then the grains were separated by magnetic, electromagnetic, dielectric and heavy liquid processes, and hand-picked at random under a binocular microscope.
U-Pb dating and trace element analyses of zircon were conducted synchronously by LA-ICP-MS (laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer) at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan. Measurement of the single grain zircon U-Pb ages was determined by the isotopic dissolution method using the procedure of Krough (1973). The techniques of zircon solution and U and Pb extraction were improved upon. The 208Pb-235U mixing spike was taken as the dissolution dose (Li et al., 1995). After the solution was evaporated, U and Pb were mixed with silica gel-phosphoric acid solution and placed on a single rhenium band. U-Pb isotopic ratios were measured by a VG-354 thermionic mass spectrometer with a high precision Daly detector. Mass discrimination and system errors of all U-Pb data were corrected and total Pb blanks over the period of the analysis ranged from 0.002 to 0.004 ng. The isotopic composition of radiogenic Pb is determined by subtracting first the blank Pb and then the remainder, assuming a common Pb composition at the time of initial crystallization, determined from the global single stage model. Calculations were performed using computer software program PBDAT (Ludwig, 1993).
All 119 single grains were dated from the sample. Most of these grains have larger Th/U ratio (≥0.4) and characteristic oscillatory zonal structure in CL images, which indicates their igneous origin. The variation of grain's data age from 2 569 Ma to 125 Ma indicates that the source of sedimentary rocks is very complex. Zircon is a heavy mineral resistant to chemical weathering, so it is a common component in siliciclastic sedimentary systems. Zircon in a sedimentary system can be derived from very old sources, stored in sedimentary strata, and recycled back into the system one or more times. Second-cycle zircons may be widely distributed and give information about the ultimate source, but not the proximate one. Conversely, first-cycle zircons are derived from weathering of Proterozoic magmatic or metamorphic rocks (Link et al., 2005; Morton and Hallsworth, 1999).
All of these processes may affect the accuracy and validity of zircon ages to some extent. In order to reduce the effect of Pb loss, the 207Pb/206Pb age was used to represent the ages of old zircons with a higher Pb content (JAN01F83, 2 569 Ma). Because the 206Pb/238U age of younger zircons has a relatively higher precision in the isotope dilution method using Pb spike H208 and U spike H235 than using the 207Pb/235U and 207Pb/206Pb age, the 206Pb/238U age was taken as the age of younger zircons with a relatively lower radioactive Pb content (125 Ma). In this situation, 206Pb/238U age with a higher precision is more reliable (Cawood and Nemchin, 2000). The low level discordance of younger zircons shown in the Concordia plot (Fig. 8a) also supports that the 206Pb/238U age is more significant than the 207Pb/235U or the 207Pb/206Pb age. According to their U-Pb ages, 108 of the 119 zircon grains separated from the Baxiandun Formation fall into three groups: 125–259 Ma (Jurassic–Early Cretaceous) (Fig. 8d); 674–793 Ma (Neoproterozoic) (Fig. 8c); 1 827–2 157 Ma (Paleoproterozoic) (Fig. 8b). In addition, a few other zircon grains fall in the age ranges of 2 200–2 600 Ma (Neoarchean to Early Paleoproterozoic) and 430–502 Ma (Late Ordovician). Reflecting from the U-Pb age distribution diagram (Fig. 9), almost half of the grains have 207Pb/206Pb ages ranging from 125 to 259 Ma and one-third have 207Pb/206Pb ages ranging from 1 827 to 2 699 Ma. The relatively high degree of discordance exhibited by some grains with low U contents indicates that these grains have suffered Pb loss during a metamorphic/tectonic event. Since detrital zircons constitute a mixture of grains of different ages, the time of Pb loss is difficult to determine. Besides, more than 10 zircon grains have 206Pb/238U ages ranging from 674–793 Ma and there are four zircons with ages ranging 430–502 Ma.
Most of zircons data indicate the Mesozoic source rocks. The topographic relief was greatest during the Middle to Late Jurassic and paleocurrents were from east to west (Dong et al., 2008). The mass occurrence of Jurassic zircons and the lack of Late Paleozoic detrital grains (400–250 Ma) suggest that the detritus are from the adjacent Sulu orogenic belt, and the Jiaodong micro-block, which means that the NCB became a major source of sediment for the basin. Late Triassic and Jurassic plutonic rocks were eroded and the erosion products deposited in the Lower Cretaceous sediments indicating that intense uplift occurred and the Meso-Cenozoic tectonic reactivated the adjacent Jiaodong orogenic belt.
The second important age distribution (1 827–2 157 Ma) concentrated in Paleoproterozoic metamorphic rocks in the adjacent orogenic belts, especially Paleoproterozoic Jiaonan Group and Wulian Group. More than 10 zircon grains with 674–793 Ma may represent the Sinian gneissic aegirine bearing alkaline granite sources from the proximal orogen due to the Jinning movement (Mish, 1942) at the southern margin of the North China Craton (700–950 Ma) (Hu et al., 1996).
The most interesting observation is that there are four zircons grains with ages ranging 430–502 Ma. It is inferred that the Late Ordovician source rocks could be sedimentary rocks deposited along the South China block margin. But the biggest issue is that no Paleozoic rocks are found in the vicinity of the study area. Some scientists (Fu and Yu, 2010) argued that it can be compared to Yuqian Group and Changwu Group, both of which also show well-preserved turbidites in South China. The problem is that those two groups are both deep sea flysch facies, but there are substantial terrigenous materials inside the rocks at Baxiandun, which indicates that the sedimentary environment at Baxiandun is not far away from a continental margin.
The age constraint is provided by the youngest detrital zircons found in the Early Cretaceous which provides a maximum limit to the age of deposition. The youngest zircon found in the Baxiandun Section has an age of 130 Ma, which provides a maximum age limit of deposition. Notably, 57U-Pb dating data concentrated on the time range of 130–146 Ma, indicating that substantial detritus was formed within the Early Cretaceous period. Given that East China was uplifted and formed a landscape of high mountains and a large lake at that period, it is most likely that the sequences at Baxiandun were a deepwater lacustrine facies which could compare with Laiyang Group in Jiaolai Basin.
Petrological analysis, geochemical results and geochronological data indicate that the sedimentary deposits in the Baxiandun Section are typical deepwater lacustrine facies that formed in an extensional faulted stage of Jiaolai Basin after the collision of NCB and SCB at about 130 Ma ago (Fig. 10). The geochronological data of the rock at Baxiandun indicate that the source rocks are very complex which vary from Archean to Early Cretaceous. However, since the most recent U-Pb age represents the time of rock formation, it can be inferred that the maximum depositional age of the sedimentary sequence is within Early Cretaceous. Considering the tectonic setting of the study area, the detritus of these sedimentary rocks most likely originated from metamorphosed rocks in adjacent Sulu Orogenic belt and Jiaodong micro-block.
Above all, because of similarities between Baxiandun strata and Laiyang Group in tectonic setting, depositional age and sedimentary source, it can be inferred that Baxiandun is one of the depocenters for early Laiyang stage Jiaolai Basin, and the separation between Baxiandun strata and commonly-recognized Mesozoic deposits in Jiaolai Basin is probably related to the exhumation of late Early Cretaceous Laoshan granite.
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Tuoyu Wu, Yongtao Fu. Cretaceous Deepwater Lacustrine Dedimentary Sequences from the Northernmost South China Block, Qingdao, China. Journal of Earth Science, 2014, 25(2): 241-251. doi: 10.1007/s12583-014-0418-6
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