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Volume 27 Issue 3
Jun 2016
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Article Contents
Abstract
0. INTRODUCTION
1. GEOLOGICAL SETTING
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3. GEOCHEMICAL RESULTS
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
References
Journal of Earth Science  > 2016  >  27(3): 403-411.
Tsuyoshi Ito, Xin Qian, Qinglai Feng. Geochemistry of Triassic siliceous rocks of the Muyinhe Formation in the Changning-Menglian belt of Southwest China. Journal of Earth Science, 2016, 27(3): 403-411. doi: 10.1007/s12583-016-0672-x
Citation: Tsuyoshi Ito, Xin Qian, Qinglai Feng. Geochemistry of Triassic siliceous rocks of the Muyinhe Formation in the Changning-Menglian belt of Southwest China. Journal of Earth Science, 2016, 27(3): 403-411. doi: 10.1007/s12583-016-0672-x
shu

Geochemistry of Triassic siliceous rocks of the Muyinhe Formation in the Changning-Menglian belt of Southwest China

doi: 10.1007/s12583-016-0672-x
  • 1.

    State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China

  • 2.

    Stratigraphy and Tectonics Research Group, Institute of Geology and Geoinformation, Geological Survey of Japan, AIST, Tsukuba, 305-8567, Japan

  • 3.

    School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China

More Information
  • Corresponding author: Tsuyoshi Ito, ito-t@aist.go.jp
  • Received Date: 11 Jun 2015
  • Accepted Date: 12 Dec 2015
  • Publish Date: 10 Jun 2016
    Abstract
  • The Changning-Menglian belt, distributed over southwestern Yunnan Province in Southwest China, contains oceanic rocks that are considered to be remnants of the Paleotethys. This study observed Triassic siliceous rocks of the Muyinhe Formation in the Changning-Menglian belt and analyzed their geochemistry. The samples have high concentrations of SiO2 (81.65 wt.%–88.38 wt.%; average: 84.99 wt.%±2.14 wt.%). Most of the samples were plotted in the non-hydrothermal field on the Al-Fe-Mn diagram. Most of the samples were plotted in the continental margin field on the Fe2O3/TiO2-Al2O3/(Al2O3+Fe2O3) and (La/Ce)N-Al2O3/(Al2O3+Fe2O3) diagrams. Moreover, the samples show a flat REE (rare earth element) pattern normalized to NASC (North America shale composite). These geochemical results, in addition to the lack of rhythmical bedding of the siliceous rocks, strongly suggest that the siliceous rocks are unlikely to represent pelagic deposits. Although previous studies have suggested that the siliceous rocks are pelagic deposits, the present results indicate that the extent of the pelagic ocean basins in the Paleotethys during the Triassic is probably less than previously believed. These non-pelagic deposits may represent the closure stage of the Paleotethys.

     

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  • The Paleotethys was an ancient ocean surrounded by Eurasia and Gondwana with some smaller blocks that have separated from Gondwana (e.g., Metcalfe, 2009, 2006). The Paleotethys opened in the Devonian and closed in the Triassic as a result of the Sibumasu-Sukhothai collision (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008). In Southeast Asia, a number of suture zones extend north-south between the Indochina and Sibumasu blocks. Mélanges within these suture zones contain oceanic rocks (e.g., limestones, basalts, and cherts), which are considered to be remnants of the Paleotethys (Wu et al., 1995). The suture zones may therefore record paleoceanic information about the Paleotethys.

    The Changning-Menglian belt is distributed over Southwest China (Fig. 1). Briefly, the following elements have been reported from the belt as interbedded rocks: Mississippian-Guadalupian carbonates (e.g., Nakazawa et al., 2009, 2005; Ueno and Tsutsumi, 2009; Ueno et al., 2003; He and Liu, 1993), Carboniferous-Permian basaltic rocks (e.g., Feng, 2002), and Middle Devonian-Middle Triassic siliceous rocks (e.g., Jin et al., 2003; Feng et al., 2001, 1997, 1996; Yao and Kuwahara, 1999; Kuwahara et al., 1997; Feng and Ye, 1996; Feng and Liu, 1993a, b, c; Feng, 1992; Wu and Li, 1989; Wu and Zhang, 1987). Previous studies have clarified that the carbonates and basaltic rocks originated from seamounts and/or oceanic islands (e.g., Ueno et al., 2003; Feng, 2002). The siliceous rocks have been considered to be pelagic deposits (e.g., Sone and Metcalfe, 2008; Yao and Kuwahara, 1999; Fang et al., 1996, 1994; Liu et al., 1993), except for those in the Middle Devonian Lalei Formation (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008).

    Figure  1.  Index map of a sample locality. (a) Geological map of southwestern Yunnan, Southwest China (modified from Qian et al., 2015). (b) Geological map around the sample locality (modified from Feng et al., 2001). CM. Changning-Menglian belt.
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    This interpretation of the siliceous rocks implies the presence of pelagic broad ocean basins during the Late Devonian- Middle Triassic. In particular, the interpretation of the Triassic rocks as pelagic deposits has great significance for hypothesis of the closure process of the Paleotethys. This is because the interpretation indicates the continuation of the broad ocean basins until the Triassic immediately before the collision. However, a few studies have confirmed the pelagic interpretation. Zhang et al. (2001) performed a geochemical analysis of Triassic siliceous rocks of the Muyinhe Formation in the Changning-Menglian belt. Although they realized that the siliceous rocks were strongly influenced by terrigenous materials, they did not evaluate the previous hypothesis.

    We studied the Triassic siliceous rocks of the Muyinhe Formation and analyzed their geochemistry. Our results, however, strongly suggest that these rocks are not typical pelagic deposits. Thus, a reconsideration of the Triassic ocean basins in the Paleotethys is necessary. This paper reports on the observational and geochemical results, and then reinterprets the sedimentary setting of these siliceous deposits.

    Several blocks and belts are distributed over southwestern Yunnan, Southwest China (Fig. 1a) (e.g., Feng et al., 2005, 2001). The Changning-Menglian belt lies between the Baoshan Block (part of the Sibumasu Block) and the Simao Block (part of the Indochina Block). The Changning-Menglian belt is a suture zone and comprises the following geologic units (He and Liu, 1993; Liu et al., 1993): the Upper Devonian (?)-Carboniferous Nandan Formation, the Carboniferous-Upper Permian Laba Group, the Carboniferous-Permian Yiliu Formation, the Upper Permian- Middle Triassic Muyinhe Formation, and the Upper Devonian- Upper Permian Nanpihe Group. The Muyinhe Formation, established by Feng (1992), is exposed along the Muyinhe River near Nanpan Village in Lancang County. Late Permian and Triassic radiolarian fossils have been obtained from this formation (Feng et al., 2001, 1996; Yao and Kuwahara, 1999; Feng and Ye, 1996; Feng and Liu, 1993b; Feng, 1992).

    We surveyed an outcrop (22°33.234'N, 99°43.460'E) exposed on the west side of the Muyinhe River (Fig. 1b). The outcrop comprises siliceous rocks and mudstones of the Muyinhe Formation with total thickness of ca. 2.5 m. The siliceous rocks are black, light gray, or gray in color. The bed thickness varies from 2 to 64 mm. Some of the siliceous rocks intercalated mudstones while some siliceous rocks are directly in contact with other siliceous rocks without mudstones in between (Fig. 2a). The siliceous rocks mainly comprise cryptocrystalline quartz and clay minerals with radiolarian tests visible in thin sections under the microscope (Fig. 2b). The mudstones (siltstones and claystones) are grayish-white, pale-green, or black in color. The bed thickness varies from 1 to 38 mm.

    Figure  2.  Field occurrence (a), thin section (b), and HF-etched surfaces (c)-(f) of siliceous rocks of the Muyinhe Formation. (a) Beddings of the siliceous rocks. White arrows indicate direct contacts without intercalated mudstones. (b) Thin section from MYH-64. Open nicol. (c), (d) Triassocampe sp. from MYH-64. (e) Pseudostylosphaera sp. from MYH-64. (f) Eptingium sp. from MYH-67. The surfaces were etched with hydrofluoric acid (HF) for one day and then imaged by a scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
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    Observation on the surfaces of the siliceous rocks etched with hydrofluoric acid (HF) revealed the presence of radiolarian tests (Figs. 2c-2f). The etched surfaces are dominantly matrix- supported. No clear preferred orientation of nassellarians (conical radiolarians) or spicules was observed on the bedding planes. Triassic radiolarian genera, such as Triassocampe Dumitrica, Kozur, and Mostler (Figs. 2c, 2d), Pseudostylosphaera Kozur and Mostler (Fig. 2e), Eptingium Dumitrica (Fig. 2f), and Paroertlispongus Kozur and Mostler, were observed on the etched surfaces. Based on these radiolarian occurrences and lithology, this section can correspond to the Middle Triassic sequence of a section described by Feng et al. (2001).

    We conducted geochemical analyses on 12 siliceous rock samples from the outcrop. All samples were powdered to 200 mesh for elemental analysis. We measured major and trace elements and rare earth elements (REEs). Major element concentrations were determined using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) techniques on fused glass beads at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences in Wuhan. The analytical precision was generally better than 5%. Trace elements and REEs analyses were performed at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences in Wuhan using an Aglient 7500a ICP-MS. The sample solutions for ICP-MS analyses were prepared following the method of Zhou et al. (2008). The analytical precision was better than 5% for elements > 10 ppm, less than 8% for those < 10 ppm, and 10% for transition metals. The analytical results for the samples are listed in Table 1.

    Table  1.  Element compositions of analyzed samples from the Muyinhe Formation
    Sample No. MYH-60 MYH-63 MYH-64 MYH-65 MYH-67 MYH-68 MYH-69 MYH-70 MYH-71 MYH-72 MYH-73 MYH-74 NASC
    SiO2 (wt.%) 87.24 84.35 88.38 81.65 87.03 83.59 84.41 83.97 87.48 83.11 82.84 85.77
    Al2O3 5.93 7.64 5.15 9.88 6.31 7.64 8.02 6.93 5.88 8.02 8.89 6.79
    Fe2O3 1.72 1.74 1.46 1.05 1.66 2.88 2.11 3.41 1.90 2.76 2.22 2.09
    K2O 1.17 1.09 0.94 0.61 1.06 1.21 1.20 1.33 1.19 1.43 1.78 1.43
    Na2O 0.87 2.05 0.93 4.72 1.19 1.33 1.16 0.76 0.72 1.12 0.87 0.63
    MgO 0.65 0.59 0.52 0.36 0.59 0.83 0.72 0.71 0.59 0.90 0.80 0.79
    P2O5 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03
    CaO 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05
    TiO2 0.20 0.35 0.18 0.33 0.23 0.27 0.27 0.29 0.21 0.30 0.33 0.28
    MnO 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.05
    lost 1.96 1.86 2.20 1.07 1.65 1.96 1.83 2.31 1.73 2.07 1.99 1.94
    Total 99.86 99.86 99.86 99.87 99.86 99.87 99.87 99.86 99.86 99.86 99.86 99.86
    La (ppm) 15.66 21.03 10.90 24.99 16.22 20.90 22.46 17.32 14.89 31.31 25.91 17.00 34.70
    Ce 36.41 49.47 23.57 54.04 35.78 46.18 53.06 37.32 31.91 56.13 60.36 36.63 71.30
    Pr 3.84 5.15 2.55 5.62 3.67 4.66 5.26 3.75 3.26 6.94 5.85 3.77 7.90
    Nd 15.11 20.37 10.20 21.60 13.72 17.66 20.19 14.16 12.24 27.00 22.22 14.24 33.60
    Sm 3.13 4.22 2.29 4.34 2.73 3.30 3.87 2.64 2.38 5.27 4.27 2.79 6.38
    Eu 0.55 0.79 0.44 0.82 0.50 0.61 0.65 0.50 0.47 1.02 0.78 0.57 1.37
    Gd 2.61 3.72 2.05 3.99 2.29 2.65 3.04 2.22 1.98 4.69 3.73 2.33 5.93
    Tb 0.38 0.66 0.33 0.69 0.37 0.39 0.45 0.33 0.31 0.73 0.56 0.34 0.97
    Dy 1.91 3.89 1.82 4.18 2.04 2.19 2.41 1.80 1.59 3.93 3.05 1.75 5.88
    Ho 0.40 0.84 0.36 0.87 0.43 0.46 0.51 0.36 0.35 0.80 0.66 0.36 1.27
    Er 1.13 2.55 1.12 2.69 1.35 1.41 1.60 1.15 1.08 2.42 2.07 1.09 3.49
    Tm 0.18 0.42 0.16 0.38 0.19 0.21 0.26 0.19 0.16 0.35 0.32 0.17 0.50
    Yb 1.15 2.52 1.08 2.54 1.35 1.47 1.67 1.20 1.10 2.29 2.11 1.15 3.26
    Lu 0.18 0.39 0.18 0.38 0.21 0.24 0.26 0.20 0.18 0.36 0.33 0.19 0.52
    ∑REE 82.65 116.02 57.04 127.13 80.86 102.34 115.68 83.13 71.88 143.23 132.22 82.37
    Y 9.25 21.57 9.62 23.70 12.29 12.12 13.63 9.64 8.96 27.64 17.71 9.23
    Sc 5.97 8.81 5.16 5.82 6.62 7.17 8.11 7.47 6.18 8.37 9.65 6.70
    Be 1.00 0.91 0.72 0.73 0.80 0.87 0.99 1.04 0.97 1.15 1.20 1.05
    Co 84.76 86.62 79.57 139.10 124.60 40.06 89.37 58.00 93.19 53.41 57.56 66.93
    Cu 36.12 44.70 37.20 18.63 33.26 39.31 38.43 54.88 48.50 60.43 58.94 37.44
    Zn 33.39 39.21 25.69 25.40 28.14 37.30 35.22 33.83 31.46 47.71 42.97 32.61
    Ga (ppm) 8.36 7.98 6.12 6.38 8.30 10.46 10.06 11.29 8.05 10.51 11.70 10.20
    Rb 54.40 46.39 36.85 28.08 46.29 53.38 57.48 61.62 52.98 64.70 74.48 64.87
    Zr 53.70 121.80 52.70 143.90 69.90 71.10 73.90 63.50 61.30 74.90 93.60 59.60
    Nb 3.77 6.43 3.71 8.81 4.93 4.94 4.25 4.90 4.71 5.28 5.87 4.76
    Cs 2.24 1.86 1.55 0.99 1.71 2.09 2.26 2.77 2.00 2.55 3.05 2.72
    Hf 1.08 2.71 0.98 3.33 1.40 1.53 1.44 1.34 1.27 1.71 1.99 1.32
    Ta 0.73 0.87 0.68 1.47 0.92 0.56 0.77 0.73 0.77 0.56 0.76 0.71
    Pb 22.12 12.45 9.23 22.69 18.47 10.98 13.77 5.45 26.89 18.12 9.65 3.56
    Th 3.77 5.52 2.58 13.14 4.00 4.63 4.60 4.61 3.19 4.88 5.98 4.76
    U 1.78 2.23 3.19 4.06 1.76 1.86 1.69 1.37 1.34 2.16 2.16 1.80
    Ba 193.88 205.03 136.51 126.27 172.33 199.56 193.75 207.89 203.07 236.06 289.91 229.54
    Cr 28.05 25.85 31.33 9.71 22.72 27.44 20.71 32.84 25.78 32.95 25.29 33.13
    Ni 65.95 80.80 73.55 95.38 73.59 42.57 54.63 42.63 59.82 45.49 41.60 48.29
    Sr 20.84 32.97 18.79 59.84 22.04 26.43 24.18 25.00 19.91 23.28 22.31 18.89
    V 48.34 57.45 52.70 32.91 51.67 55.07 41.97 48.75 56.69 56.62 51.72 46.49
    Sn 2.02 2.25 1.55 1.56 1.71 1.71 1.63 1.65 1.68 1.90 2.12 1.98
    Al/(Al+Fe+Mn) 0.72 0.76 0.72 0.87 0.74 0.66 0.74 0.60 0.69 0.68 0.75 0.70
    Si/(Si+Al+Fe) 0.90 0.88 0.92 0.87 0.90 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.90 0.86 0.86 0.89
    Ce/Ce* 1.09 1.10 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.09 1.13 1.08 1.06 0.88 1.14 1.06
    Eu/Eu* 0.85 0.89 0.91 0.88 0.88 0.92 0.84 0.91 0.96 0.91 0.87 0.99
    (La/Ce)N 0.88 0.87 0.95 0.95 0.93 0.93 0.87 0.95 0.96 1.15 0.88 0.95
    (La/Yb)N 1.28 0.78 0.95 0.93 1.13 1.34 1.26 1.36 1.27 1.28 1.15 1.39
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    3.1 Major Elements

    All major oxides are volatile-free normalized to 100%. All analyzed samples have high level of SiO2 (81.65 wt.%-88.38 wt.%; average: 84.99 wt.%±2.14 wt.%), TiO2 (0.18 wt.%-0.35 wt.%; average: 0.27 wt.%±0.05 wt.%), and Fe2O3 (1.05 wt.%-3.41 wt.%; average: 2.08 wt.%±0.66 wt.%); however the SiO2 contents are lower than those of the Triassic Panthalassan pelagic cherts in accretionary complexes of Southwest Japan (Table 2). The samples are characterized by a higher concentration of Al2O3 (5.15 wt.%-9.88 wt.%; average: 7.26 wt.%±1.36 wt.%), even allowing for the diluting effect of high SiO2 in the pelagic cherts.

    Table  2.  Average chemical composition of Triassic siliceous rocks of the Muyinhe Formation of this study and Panthalassan pelagic cherts in accretionary complexes of Southwest Japan
    Reference This study Sugisaki et al. (1982) Hori et al. (2000)
    Age Triassic Triassic Triassic-Jurassic
    Locality Muyinhe Kamiaso Inuyama
    Lithology Siliceous rock Chert Gray-black chert Red chert
    Number 12 69 10 37
    SiO2 84.99±2.14 96.22±2.23 97.55±1.56 95.52±1.10
    Al2O3 7.26±1.36 1.74±0.86 1.21±0.30 2.30±0.57
    Fe2O3 2.08±0.66 0.77±0.38 0.89±1.42 0.83±0.24
    K2O 1.20±0.29 0.40±0.23 0.27±0.09 0.62±0.19
    Na2O 1.36±1.12 0.082±0.023 0.18±0.02 0.07±0.03
    MgO 0.67±0.15 0.44±0.30 0.21±0.06 0.41±0.12
    P2O5 0.04±0.01 0.035±0.015 0.045±0.024 0.029±0.019
    CaO 0.06±0.02 0.35±0.02 0.09±0.04 0.11±0.04
    TiO2 0.27±0.05 0.077±0.04 0.04±0.02 0.09±0.03
    MnO 0.05±0.01 0.018±0.012 0.045±0.092 0.026±0.009
    Unit: wt.%
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    3.2 Rare Earth Elements

    The REEs contents in our samples were very low in comparison to the values of the North American shale composite (NASC) proposed by Gromet et al. (1984; modified by Kawabe et al., 1998). The total REEs content (ΣREE) of all analyzed samples in the Muyinhe Formation is from 57.04 ppm to 143.24 ppm (average: 99.55 ppm±27.05 ppm). The concentration of La is 10.90 ppm-31.31 ppm (average: 19.88 ppm±5.67 ppm). All samples have similar NASC-normalized REEs patterns (Fig. 3a). Most of the analyzed samples are characterized by a flat pattern. The (La/Yb)N (N herein refers to NASC-normalized value) ratios are in the range of 0.78-1.39 (average: 1.18±0.19). No anomalies of Ce and Eu were recognized. The Ce/Ce* value is in the range of 0.88-1.14 (average: 1.07±0.05), whereas the Eu/Eu* value is in the range of 0.84-0.99 (average: 0.90±0.04).

    Figure  3.  Geochemical results of the analyzed samples from the Muyinhe Formation. (a) NASC-normalized REE patterns (Gromet et al., 1984 modified by Kawabe et al., 1998). (b) Al-Fe-Mn diagram. Hydrothermal and non-hydrothermal fields are from Adachi et al. (1986) and Yamamoto (1987). (c), (d) Fe2O3/TiO2-Al2O3/(Al2O3+Fe2O3) and (La/Ce)N-Al2O3/(Al2O3+Fe2O3) diagrams. Ridge, pelagic, and continental margin fields are from Murray (1994).
    DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

    The geochemistry of radiolarian cherts is an important tool for the elucidation of the depositional environment and paleogeography of a particular area or region. However, some major elements, including Si, Ca, Mn, Mg, and P are not suitable for this purpose because of their diagenetic fractionation and migration characteristics (Halamić et al., 2001). In the chert depositional environment, Al, Fe, Ti, and REEs are generally unaffected by diagenetic alteration; therefore, these elements can be widely used for the interpretation of the depositional environment (Murray et al., 1990). In this section, we discuss the origin and depositional environment of our materials based on their geochemical results and sedimentary features. We then highlight the significance of the presence of non-pelagic siliceous rocks during the Triassic in the Paleotethys.

    In general, silica within rocks originates from organisms (e.g., radiolarians, siliceous sponges, and diatoms), terrigenous materials, and chemical reactions (e.g., hydrothermal fluid). Huang et al. (2013) estimated the terrigenous composition of siliceous rocks by using certain insoluble trace elements: Nb, Hf, and Th. The Nb, Hf, and Th of the analyzed samples from the Muyinhe Formation are generally higher than those of upper Paleozoic rocks from western Guangxi, suggesting a strong influence of terrigenous materials. Moreover, the Al/(Al+Fe+Mn) ratio is known to be an indicator of the amount of hydrothermal contribution (Huang et al., 2013). The Al-Fe-Mn diagram was defined by Adachi et al. (1986) and Yamamoto (1987) based on cherts from the accretionary complexes and the Pacific Basin. Most of the analyzed samples of the Muyinhe Formation plot in non-hydrothermal field of the Al-Fe-Mn diagram (Fig. 3b). In addition, a negative anomaly of Ce in cherts is known to be caused by hydrothermal activity (e.g., Murray et al., 1990). However, no negative anomaly was recognized in the analyzed samples. Furthermore, the high ratios of Si/(Si+Al+Fe) (0.86-0.92) are consistent with a biogenic origin as proposed by Rangin et al. (1981). The observations of thin section (Fig. 2b) and HF-etched surfaces (Figs. 2c-2f) suggest the presence of radiolarian tests in the siliceous rocks. All these facts indicate that the silica within the siliceous rocks was biogenic and are little affected by hydrothermal activity.

    In the Al2O3/(Al2O3+Fe2O3)-Fe2O3/TiO2 diagram proposed by Murray (1994), the analyzed samples fall in the continental margin field (Fig. 3c). A similar result was also obtained from the (La/Ce)N-Al2O3/(Al2O3+Fe2O3) diagram (Fig. 3d), which is proposed by Murray (1994). Most of the analyzed samples generally show flat REEs patterns normalized to NASC (Fig. 3a), further supporting predominant contribution of continental detritus to the REEs component. To summarize, the geochemical results suggest that the siliceous rocks formed in a continental margin but not pelagic environment. In addition to the geochemical results, the lithological characteristics of the siliceous rock beds imply that they are not typical pelagic deposits. Typical pelagic siliceous rocks, represented by cherts, are characterized by rhythmic bedding, e.g., the Triassic Panthalassan pelagic cherts in Southwest Japan consist of rhythmically alternating chert beds and intercalated thin mudstone beds (e.g., Ikeda et al., 2010; Dozen and Ishiga, 1995; Hori et al., 1993; Ishiga et al., 1993). However, the siliceous rocks and mudstones in the Muyinhe Formation are characterized by varying bed thicknesses, and some siliceous rock beds lack intercalated mudstones (Fig. 2a).

    Our results suggested that the analyzed siliceous rocks of the Muyinhe Formation are not likely to represent pelagic deposits. This has implication for the extent of the pelagic ocean basins in the Paleotethys during the Triassic, i.e., they were probably narrower than previously believed. Sone and Metcalfe (2008) indicated the possibility that the siliceous rocks of the Middle Devonian Lalei Formation were not pelagic based on the formation's turbiditic sedimentary facies and clastic inclusions. They then stated that "The Lalei Formation probably represents a hemi-pelagic deposit during the rifting to opening stage when Indochina was split from Gondwana in the Devonian" (p. 167, Sone and Metcalfe, 2008). Similarly, the Muyinhe Formation may represent non-pelagic deposition during the closure of the Paleotethys (Fig. 4).

    Figure  4.  Age range and formation environment of oceanic rocks of the Changning-Menglian belt. Mid.. Middle; Guad.. Guadalupian; Lo.. Lopingian; E.. Early; Fm.. formation.
    DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

    In addition, the Chiang Mai belt in northwestern Thailand, which is considered to be an extension of the Changning- Menglian belt (Sone and Metcalfe, 2008; Feng et al., 2005), has also yielded Triassic siliceous deposits. Kamata et al. (2009) divided the Carboniferous-Triassic cherts in northwestern Thailand into two types based on their sedimentological characteristics and co-occurring fossil faunas. According to that study, type 1 chert is pelagic whereas type 2 chert is hemipelagic. Those findings and the present results indicates that Triassic siliceous rocks might have been deposited in several sedimentary places in the Paleotethys. Further work on the detailed classification of siliceous rocks may clarify the paleogeography of the Paleotethys in the Triassic and its closure process.

    ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for providing constructive comments. This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 41172202, 41190073), the China Geological Survey (No. 1212011121256), and the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences in Wuhan (No. MSFGPMR201402). The final publication is available at Springer via http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12583-016-0672-x.
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