
Citation: | Gang Rao, Yali Cheng, Aiming Lin, Bing Yan. Relationship between Landslides and Active Normal Faulting in the Epicentral Area of the AD 1556 M~8.5 Huaxian Earthquake, SE Weihe Graben (Central China). Journal of Earth Science, 2017, 28(3): 545-554. doi: 10.1007/s12583-017-0900-z |
Many factors may be responsible for the occurrence of landslides, such as moderate to large earthquakes (e.g., Tian et al., 2016; Xu et al., 2016; Ren et al., 2014a, b, 2013; Has et al., 2012; Dai et al., 2011a; Chigira et al., 2010; Ren and Lin, 2010; Owen et al., 2008; Harp and Jibson, 1996; Keefer, 1994, 1984), typhoons (e.g., Tsou et al., 2011; Fujisawa et al., 2010), as well as human activities (e.g., Huang and Chan, 2004; Barnard et al., 2001). Among them, earthquake-induced landslides particularly that within the epicentral areas of large earthquakes often caused serious damages and casualties within a distance of several to tens of kilometers (e.g., Meunier et al., 2008, 2007; Das et al., 2007; Dadson et al., 2004; Keefer, 2000; Jibson and Keefer, 1989). Previous studies also suggested that co-seismic landslides tend to be concentrated along co-seismic surface rupture zones which are usually controlled by active faults (e.g., Ren et al., 2014a; Dai et al., 2011b; Ren and Lin, 2010; Jibson et al., 2004). Therefore, investigations on the characteristics of the landslides in the epicentral areas of historical earthquakes and their relations to active faults are crucial for making an assessment of potential landslide hazards particularly that in densely-populated regions.
In this study, we investigate the characteristics of the landslides distributed in the epicentral area of the M~8.5 Hua-xian Great Earthquake that occurred on January 23, 1556 (between Weinan and Huayin; Fig. 1). This earthquake caused serious damages and > 830 000 deaths, including that resulted from co-seismic landslides (Yuan and Feng, 2010; CENC, 2007; Li and Cui, 2007; Xie, 1992; Kuo, 1957). On the basis of analyzing remote sensing images and DEMs, combined with field observations, we delineate the characteristics of the observed landslides (Fig. 2), and demonstrate the close relationship between the landslides and the active normal faulting. Finally, we discuss the implications for assessing potential landslide hazards in actively extending regions.
The Weihe Graben in Central China (Fig. 1), is situated at the south margin of Ordos Block consisting of consolidate crystalline basement (SSB, 1988). To the south, it is bounded by the Qinling Mountains that were formed in association with the collision between the North China Craton (NCC) and the South China Block (SCB) in the Triassic (e.g., Ratschbacher et al., 2003; Meng and Zhang, 2000). As one of the Cenozoic graben systems developing around the Ordos Block, extensional deformation in the Weihe Graben started from the Eocene at ~50 Ma, resulting in > 7 km thick sediments (Liu et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 1998; SSB, 1988).
The Huashan Mountains in the eastern part with a peak elevation of ~1 700 m above the sea level are mainly composed of pre-Mesozoic metamorphic basement rocks (SSB, 1988). A previous investigation based on fission track dating has demonstrated its uplift started at ~68.2 Ma, and the uplift-rate has accelerated to ~0.19 mm/yr since ~17.8 Ma (Yin et al., 2001). To the west, the Weinan Loess Tableland is mainly composed of Quaternary alluvial deposits and > 100 m-thick loess sediments (Fig. 1a; SSB, 1988), and was uplifted probably since ~1.2 Ma (Feng and Dai, 2004).
Several moderate to large historical earthquakes have occurred in the SE Weihe Graben, which can be dated back to BC 7 (Deng, 2007; SSB, 1988). In particular, previous studies have speculated the magnitude of the AD 1556 Huaxian Earthquake is as large as ~8.5, and inferred the region between Weinan and Huayin as the epicentral area according to the building damages and loss of people (Yuan and Feng, 2010; SSB, 1988). Major active faults include Huashan piedmont fault (HPF) and northern margin fault of the Weinan Loess Tableland (NMF-WLT) (Fig. 1a). They are both characterized by normal-slip motion with average throw-rates of ~1.5-3.0 mm/yr during the Late Pleistocene-Holocene (Rao et al., 2015, 2014; Deng et al., 2003; SSB, 1988; Li and Ran, 1983). Moreover, paleoseismological investigations demonstrate that Holocene surface-rupturing earthquakes have repeatedly occurred along these belts (Rao et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 1995; SSB, 1988; Xu et al., 1988).
In this study, 1-m IKONOS (Greek word for "image") and 0.5-m World View spatial-resolution satellite images were used to identify landslides. Between them, the World View as a relatively new satellite was launched in September 2007, which has an average revisit time of 1.7 days and is capable of collecting 0.5 m imagery over one million square kilometers per day (Digital Global, Inc., 2016).
Firstly, we mapped the extents of major landslides by integrating SRTM (shutter radar topography mission) DEMs (Figs. 3a and 4) with remote sensing images in perspective views (Figs. 3b and 5a). Then, we carried out fieldwork to observe the detailed characteristics of the landslides according to the distribution from our analysis (Figs. 3c-3e, 5b and 6b). Classifications of landslide types in this study are based on the guidebook provided by the U.S. Geological Survey (Highland and Bobrowsky, 2008). As slope morphology (particularly slope angle) may play significant roles in controlling landslide development (e.g., Ren and Lin, 2010; Chuang et al., 2009; Owen et al., 2008), topographic analysis was also carried out based on DEMs (Fig. 8). Finally, in combination with the features of active normal fault zones observed in the field, we discussed the relationship between the landslides and the active normal faulting (Figs. 9 and 10). All the remote sensing images and DEMs were processed by using ENVI software, including 3D interpretations and topographic analysis.
In the study area, large-volume landslides including the Zhangling and Lianhuasi landslides are pronounced along the northern margins of Weinan Loess Tableland and Huashan Mountains, respectively (Fig. 2). Besides, landslides have also been identified in mountainous regions. The characteristics are described in detail as below.
The Zhangling Landslide is located at Site 1, ~15 km east to the Weinan City (Fig. 2), which is the largest landslide in the loess area. The northward protuberance of topography characterizes the color-shaded relief map (Fig. 3a), revealing the approximate extent of this landslide. Detailed analysis demonstrates the arc-shaped slide scar (A) and two sets of inner scarps (B and C), and a conservative slide-area of ~2.75 km2 is estimated (Fig. 3a). These characteristics are especially pronounced from a perspective view of the 1-m IKONOS image (Fig. 3b), which can also be observed in the field (Fig. 3c). The morphology of the slide scars and the masses re-deposited at the rear of individual slides are evident on the topographic profiles constructed from DEMs (Fig. 3d) and that measured in the field (Fig. 3e).
At Site 2, DEMs and 0.5-m World View image reveal the slide-area of Lianhuasi Landslide is > 6 km2 and the run-out distance reaches ~4 km from its main scar (Figs. 4 and 5a). Even if the range-fronts have been modified by modern quarrying, the morphology of the slide scar is still pronounced (Fig. 5b). It is the largest landslide mapped along the Huashan piedmont, where the slide masses characterized by large-scale rock avalanches are widely distributed and still can be observed in the field (Figs. 6a and 6b). Moreover, at least 2 layers of slump deposits (consisting of sandy gravels) intercalated with the lacustrine sediments (clay) were identified from the core-drillings acquired in ancient Baiya Lake (Fig. 6c; SSB, 1988), revealing the probably repeated occurrence of landslides at this site.
Other landslides have also been mapped from remote sensing images, such as that observed at Site 3. The observed landslide is < 500 m2, and is featured by rock/debris falls along the margin of uplifted fluvial and loess sediments (Fig. 7a). It is worthy to note that quarrying along the range-fronts of the Huashan Mountains as shown in Fig. 5, has contributed to and/or aggravated the landslide development. In the mountainous regions, however, it is easier to map the slope failure along river valleys with slide-areas of 0.007-0.196 km2 (Table 1), including rock falls, rockslide and topple (Figs. 7b-7d; see Fig. 2 for the locations).
Number | Lat. (°N) | Lon. (°E) | Area (km2) | Slope (°) | Descriptions |
1 | 34.500 658 | 110.106 451 | 0.019 | 50 | Huangpuyu Valley |
2 | 34.485 678 | 110.101 076 | 0.098 | 58 | Huangpuyu Valley |
3 | 34.495 386 | 110.096 686 | 0.095 | 45 | Huangpuyu Valley |
4 | 34.479 666 | 110.058 986 | 0.098 | 53 | Xiaoyu Valley |
5 | 34.470 842 | 110.053 420 | 0.196 | 45 | Xiaoyu Valley |
6 | 34.450 414 | 110.060 230 | 0.096 | 44 | Xiaoyu Valley |
7 | 34.492 384 | 109.967 368 | 0.083 | 47 | Dafuyu Valley |
8 | 34.475 623 | 109.973 165 | 0.042 | 55 | Dafuyu Valley |
9 | 34.474 180 | 109.968 055 | 0.044 | 60 | Dafuyu Valley |
10 | 34.458 015 | 109.960 097 | 0.120 | 44 | Dafuyu Valley |
11 | 34.444 419 | 109.960 513 | 0.195 | 60 | Dafuyu Valley |
12 | 34.497 105 | 109.951 892 | 0.020 | 62 | Dafuyu Valley |
13 | 34.456 035 | 109.942 727 | 0.146 | 52 | Dafuyu Valley |
14 | 34.512 057 | 109.943 538 | 0.027 | 57 | Liuyu Valley |
15 | 34.497 669 | 109.942 689 | 0.026 | 48 | Liuyu Valley |
16 | 34.499 654 | 109.912 179 | 0.124 | 51 | Fangshanyu Valley |
17 | 34.497 010 | 109.878 802 | 0.110 | 45 | Gouyu Valley |
18 | 34.490 401 | 109.889 377 | 0.059 | 47 | Gouyu Valley |
19 | 34.480 156 | 109.882 767 | 0.051 | 55 | Gouyu Valley |
20 | 34.473 878 | 109.886 072 | 0.046 | 52 | Gouyu Valley |
21 | 34.471 234 | 109.893 012 | 0.068 | 43 | Gouyu Valley |
22 | 34.493 706 | 109.876 489 | 0.106 | 50 | Gouyu Valley |
23 | 34.454 710 | 109.867 896 | 0.164 | 48 | Xiaofuyu Valley |
24 | 34.449 423 | 109.840 467 | 0.085 | 52 | Xiaofuyu Valley |
25 | 34.476 191 | 109.808 081 | 0.058 | 48 | Tanyu Valley |
26 | 34.459 363 | 109.825 820 | 0.058 | 47 | Tanyu Valley |
27 | 34.451 471 | 109.811 597 | 0.038 | 53 | Taipingyu Valley |
28 | 34.449 471 | 109.768 087 | 0.007 | 41 | Shidiyu Valley |
29 | 34.441 549 | 109.779 447 | 0.031 | 46 | Shidiyu Valley |
30 | 34.444 864 | 109.776 950 | 0.028 | 47 | Shidiyu Valley |
31 | 34.433 230 | 109.794 863 | 0.128 | 50 | Shidiyu Valley |
32 | 34.425 055 | 109.798 490 | 0.056 | 64 | Shidiyu Valley |
33 | 34.428 818 | 109.813 597 | 0.051 | 56 | Shidiyu Valley |
34 | 34.423 601 | 109.828 299 | 0.022 | 50 | Shidiyu Valley |
35 | 34.408 114 | 109.836 832 | 0.029 | 44 | Shidiyu Valley |
36 | 34.412 410 | 109.818 326 | 0.013 | 52 | Shidiyu Valley |
37 | 34.402 534 | 109.820 423 | 0.030 | 40 | Shidiyu Valley |
38 | 34.400 980 | 109.823 398 | 0.026 | 42 | Shidiyu Valley |
39 | 34.435 092 | 109.746 781 | 0.042 | 45 | Mayu Valley |
40 | 34.411 387 | 109.775 551 | 0.019 | 42 | Mayu Valley |
41 | 34.505 812 | 109.847 340 | > 6 | 45 | Lianhuasi Landslide |
42 | 34.495 925 | 109.616 827 | ~2.75 | 48 | Zhangling Landslide |
43 | 34.457 308 | 109.725 226 | 0.000 4 | 35 | Weinan Loess margin |
Based on the DEMs the results of our analysis indicate that higher slope values as much as 65º characterize the Huashan Mountains, whereas the low-lying Weihe Graben is almost flat with much gentler slopes (Fig. 8a). Differences are also obvious if we see from the profiles. In contrast to the highly rugged mountainous regions, slopes in the basin area are mostly < 10° (Fig. 8b). The topographic transition zone along the basin boundary with slopes of 30º-52º (Fig. 8b), is the place where the giant landslides occurred (e.g., Lianhuasi Landslide; Figs. 4-6). Since the range fronts have been strongly modified by modern human activity (mostly quarrying), we analyzed the slopes of the landslides identified in the Huashan Mountains. As shown in Fig. 8c, all the slopes upon which landslides occurred are steep with angles of ≥40°.
Remote sensing interpretations and topographic analysis demonstrate that the observed landslides are mostly developed along the steep inner valleys of the Huashan Mountains (≥40º; Fig. 8c), and along the north margin zones (e.g., Lianhuasi Landslide). This results are consistent with the slope morphologies of the landslides produced by the tectonic thrusting (e.g., Ren and Lin, 2010; Owen et al., 2008), and strike-slip faulting (e.g., Xu and Xu, 2014; Xu et al., 2013). Meanwhile, the topographic transition zone corresponds to the active normal-fault zones, which are characterized by step-like fault scarps with steep faults as observed in the field (Fig. 9). Both the field mapping and the numeral modelling suggested that step-like slopes could locally affect the seismic ground motion (topographic amplification), and consequently trigger intense progressive failures upon steep slopes (e.g., Alfaro et al., 2012; Lenti and Martino, 2012; Sepúlveda et al., 2005). Affected by active faulting, the rocks are strongly deformed and mostly consist of highly sheared and fractured rock masses (Fig. 9b). Due to tectonic weakening they would lose their internal cohesion and hence reduce their strengths, facilitating the occurrence of rock-slope failures (Dai et al., 2011b; Korup, 2004). Moreover, large-volume landslides (e.g., rock avalanches) are able to transport across the stepped slopes in active normal fault zones for long distances up to several kilometers (Fig. 10). Thus, we suggest the occurrence of landslides are facilitated by active normal faulting. Meanwhile, the relationship between the landslides and the stepped normal faults under tectonic extension demonstrated here provides a basis for comparing with other tectonic settings. The landslides produced by strike-slip faulting may be distributed symmetrically on both sides of surface rupture zones (e.g., Gorum et al., 2014; Xu and Xu, 2014), whereas more landslides are generated on the hanging wall than that on the footwall, and might be affected by the geometry of thrust faults (e.g., Xu et al., 2015, 2014, 2013; Wang et al., 2002).
During earthquakes, large portions of damages and casualties were caused by seismic-induced landslides, and moreover some of large landslides tend to recur in the same places (Soloneko, 1977). Thus, studies on characteristics of major landslides particularly that in epicentral areas of historical earthquakes are important keys to assess the landslide potential. In the study area, the Lianhuasi Landslide along the Huashan piedmont is the largest one, which was previously inferred to be triggered by the AD 1556 earthquake (Figs. 5-7; Yuan and Feng, 2010; Li and Cui, 2007; SSB, 1988). However, based on re-analysis of historical documents Zhou (2010) suggested the AD 1072 earthquake probably caused the Lianhuasi Landslide. By contrast, a recent OSL (optical stimulated luminescence) dating of the loess sediments covering the slide-related breccias delineated it was likely formed before 187 kyr ago (Du et al., 2013). Actually, to precisely bracket the timing of a paleo-slide and even to establish its seismic origin are often difficult (Jibson, 2009; Jibson and Keefer, 1993). But, at least it provides us a picture of the partial effects of a possible earthquake on the Huashan piedmont fault, which has been considered to be active and capable of generating large earthquakes (Rao et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 1995; SSB, 1988; Xu et al., 1988).
Meanwhile, we suggest attention should also be paid to the Weinan area where the thickness of loess sediments is > 100 m (Figs. 1 and 2). It is fit for the occurrence of a giant loess landslide (e.g., Derbysgire, 2001; Soloneko, 1977). The size could be similar to the Zhangling Landslide which was suggested to be produced by the AD 1556 Huaxian Earthquake according to its location and morphological features recorded by historical documents (Fig. 3; Yuan and Feng, 2010; SSB, 1988; He, 1986). The potential hazards might be comparable with the landslides triggered by the AD 1920 M 8.5 Haiyuan Earthquake (Zhang and Wang, 2007; Close and McCormick, 1922). Therefore, it is particularly crucial for our study area, because it is densely populated and the historical seismicity was high. The results presented here may also be helpful to better understand the mechanism of gravity-driven movements (e.g., Gori et al., 2014; Carbonel et al., 2013; Moro et al., 2012), and how active normal faulting controls the landscape of range-fronts in actively extending regions (e.g., Osmundsen et al., 2009; Densmore et al., 1998).
On the basis of analyzing remote sensing images and DEM data, combined with field observations, we have reached the following conclusions.
(ⅰ) The landslides observed in the study area range from small-scale debris/rock fall to large-scale rock avalanches.
(ⅱ) The landslides are mostly developed upon steep slopes of ≥30°.
(ⅲ) The step-like normal-fault scarps along the range-fronts of the Huashan Mountains as well as the thick loess sediments in Weinan area may facilitate the occurrence of large landslides.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: We are grateful to Prof. Dong Jia, Dr. Maomao Wang and Dr. Xiaojun Wu for their field assistance and helpful discussion on an early draft. We also thank the reviewers and editors for the constructive suggestions which greatly improved the manuscript. This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41502203), the Scientific Research Foundation for Returned Overseas Scholars of China (awarded to G. Rao), the Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (No. LY15D02001), and a Science Project (No. 23253002) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan. The final publication is available at Springer via http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12583-017-0900-z.Alfaro, P., Delgado, J., García-Tortosa, F. J., et al., 2012. Widespread Landslides Induced by the Mw 5.1 Earthquake of 11 May 2011 in Lorca, SE Spain. Engineering Geology, 137/138: 40-52. doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.04.002 |
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Number | Lat. (°N) | Lon. (°E) | Area (km2) | Slope (°) | Descriptions |
1 | 34.500 658 | 110.106 451 | 0.019 | 50 | Huangpuyu Valley |
2 | 34.485 678 | 110.101 076 | 0.098 | 58 | Huangpuyu Valley |
3 | 34.495 386 | 110.096 686 | 0.095 | 45 | Huangpuyu Valley |
4 | 34.479 666 | 110.058 986 | 0.098 | 53 | Xiaoyu Valley |
5 | 34.470 842 | 110.053 420 | 0.196 | 45 | Xiaoyu Valley |
6 | 34.450 414 | 110.060 230 | 0.096 | 44 | Xiaoyu Valley |
7 | 34.492 384 | 109.967 368 | 0.083 | 47 | Dafuyu Valley |
8 | 34.475 623 | 109.973 165 | 0.042 | 55 | Dafuyu Valley |
9 | 34.474 180 | 109.968 055 | 0.044 | 60 | Dafuyu Valley |
10 | 34.458 015 | 109.960 097 | 0.120 | 44 | Dafuyu Valley |
11 | 34.444 419 | 109.960 513 | 0.195 | 60 | Dafuyu Valley |
12 | 34.497 105 | 109.951 892 | 0.020 | 62 | Dafuyu Valley |
13 | 34.456 035 | 109.942 727 | 0.146 | 52 | Dafuyu Valley |
14 | 34.512 057 | 109.943 538 | 0.027 | 57 | Liuyu Valley |
15 | 34.497 669 | 109.942 689 | 0.026 | 48 | Liuyu Valley |
16 | 34.499 654 | 109.912 179 | 0.124 | 51 | Fangshanyu Valley |
17 | 34.497 010 | 109.878 802 | 0.110 | 45 | Gouyu Valley |
18 | 34.490 401 | 109.889 377 | 0.059 | 47 | Gouyu Valley |
19 | 34.480 156 | 109.882 767 | 0.051 | 55 | Gouyu Valley |
20 | 34.473 878 | 109.886 072 | 0.046 | 52 | Gouyu Valley |
21 | 34.471 234 | 109.893 012 | 0.068 | 43 | Gouyu Valley |
22 | 34.493 706 | 109.876 489 | 0.106 | 50 | Gouyu Valley |
23 | 34.454 710 | 109.867 896 | 0.164 | 48 | Xiaofuyu Valley |
24 | 34.449 423 | 109.840 467 | 0.085 | 52 | Xiaofuyu Valley |
25 | 34.476 191 | 109.808 081 | 0.058 | 48 | Tanyu Valley |
26 | 34.459 363 | 109.825 820 | 0.058 | 47 | Tanyu Valley |
27 | 34.451 471 | 109.811 597 | 0.038 | 53 | Taipingyu Valley |
28 | 34.449 471 | 109.768 087 | 0.007 | 41 | Shidiyu Valley |
29 | 34.441 549 | 109.779 447 | 0.031 | 46 | Shidiyu Valley |
30 | 34.444 864 | 109.776 950 | 0.028 | 47 | Shidiyu Valley |
31 | 34.433 230 | 109.794 863 | 0.128 | 50 | Shidiyu Valley |
32 | 34.425 055 | 109.798 490 | 0.056 | 64 | Shidiyu Valley |
33 | 34.428 818 | 109.813 597 | 0.051 | 56 | Shidiyu Valley |
34 | 34.423 601 | 109.828 299 | 0.022 | 50 | Shidiyu Valley |
35 | 34.408 114 | 109.836 832 | 0.029 | 44 | Shidiyu Valley |
36 | 34.412 410 | 109.818 326 | 0.013 | 52 | Shidiyu Valley |
37 | 34.402 534 | 109.820 423 | 0.030 | 40 | Shidiyu Valley |
38 | 34.400 980 | 109.823 398 | 0.026 | 42 | Shidiyu Valley |
39 | 34.435 092 | 109.746 781 | 0.042 | 45 | Mayu Valley |
40 | 34.411 387 | 109.775 551 | 0.019 | 42 | Mayu Valley |
41 | 34.505 812 | 109.847 340 | > 6 | 45 | Lianhuasi Landslide |
42 | 34.495 925 | 109.616 827 | ~2.75 | 48 | Zhangling Landslide |
43 | 34.457 308 | 109.725 226 | 0.000 4 | 35 | Weinan Loess margin |