Figure
1.
Simplified geological map of the West Kunlun orogenic belt (WKOB) (modified after Zhang et al., 2019a, b; Pan, 2000).
| Citation: | Jinhong Xu, Zhengwei Zhang, Chengquan Wu, Taiyi Luo, Weiguang Zhu, Xiyao Li, Ziru Jin, Pengcheng Hu. Early Ordovician–Middle Silurian Subduction-Closure of the Proto-Tethys Ocean: Evidence from the Qiaerlong Pluton at the Northwestern Margin of the West Kunlun Orogenic Belt, NW China. Journal of Earth Science, 2024, 35(2): 430-448. doi: 10.1007/s12583-021-1453-8
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Early Paleozoic magmatism in the West Kunlun Orogenic Belt (WKOB) preserves important information about the tectonic evolution of the Proto-Tethys Ocean. This paper reports whole-rock compositions, zircon and apatite U-Pb dating, and zircon Hf isotopes for the Qiaerlong Pluton (QEL) at the northwestern margin of WKOB, with the aim of elucidating the petrogenesis of the pluton and shedding insights into the subduction-collision process of this oceanic slab. The QEL is mainly composed of Ordovician quartz monzodiorite (479 ± 3 Ma), quartz monzonite (467–472 Ma), and syenogranite (463 ± 4 Ma), and is intruded by Middle Silurian peraluminous granite (429 ± 20 Ma) and diabase (421 ± 4 Ma). Zircon
The West Kunlun orogenic belt (WKOB) is located between the Tarim Basin and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (Figure 1a; Zhang C L et al., 2019a; Pan, 2000). Two parallel and NW-SE trending large Ⅰ-type magmatic suites (over 1 000 km) are distributed in the WKOB and provide important information on the tectonic evolution of the Early Paleozoic Proto-Tethys Ocean and Late Paleozoic Paleo-Tethys Ocean (Figure 1b, Zhang C L et al., 2019; Pan, 2000). Predecessors conducted a long-term and in-depth research on Early Paleozoic magmatism in this region, which has improved our understanding for tectonic evolution of the Proto-Tethys Ocean (Figure 1b; Zhang C L et al., 2019a; Xiao et al., 2002); however, some key issues remain controversial.
The Proto-Tethys Ocean was formed during the breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent and initially subducted from the Cambrian (Figure 1b; Zhang C L et al., 2019a; Xiao et al., 2002), but the closure time of the ocean are disputed as Early Silurian (Zhang C L et al., 2019b), Middle Silurian (Zhang Q C et al., 2019a; Ye et al., 2008), or Late Silurian (Li et al., 2019). Previous studies have shown that magmatism related to the Proto-Tethys Ocean was largely exposed in the southeastern part of the WKOB, while there are few reports of such magmatism in the northwestern margin of this area due to widely developed Jurassic–Cretaceous molasses (Robinson et al., 2004). The attribute of South Kunlun Terrane is widely debated, some have suggested that it was separated from the Tarim Block (Wang, 2004; Pan, 2000), while others have suggested that it is a huge subduction accretionary wedge (Zhang et al., 2018b; Xiao et al., 2005; Yuan et al., 2005). In addition, the subduction polarity of the Proto-Tethys ocean remained highly controversial whether it was southward (Li et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2019; Zhang Q C et al., 2019a, b, 2018; Jiang et al., 2002), northward (Wang, 2004; Xiao et al., 2000), or bidirectional (Wang et al., 2017; Xiao et al., 2002).
The Qiaerlong Pluton is exposed at the northwestern margin of the WKOB (Figure 1b). Previous studies reveal that this pluton is composed of fine-grained biotite granodiorite and medium-grained quartz diorite, and had apparent 206Pb/238U ages of 330–413 Ma (Henan Institute of Geological Survey, HIGS, 2005), indicating that the intrusion may be related to the Proto-Tethys Ocean. In this contribution, we present geological, whole-rock geochemical, zircon U-Pb, and Lu-Hf isotopic data for the Qiaerlong Pluton to decipher its crystallization ages and petrogenesis. These data are then combined with the results of previous research to better constrain the tectonic evolution of the Proto-Tethys Ocean.
Since the Phanerozoic, the WKOB experienced multiple opening, subduction, and closure processes of the Proto-Tethys, Paleo-Tethys, and Neo-Tethys Ocean, which led to multiple suture zones between different terranes, from north to south, including the Oytag-Kudi-Qimanyute Suture (OKQS) between the North Kunlun Terrane (NKT) and the South Kunlun Terrane (SKT); the Mazha-Kangxiwa-Subashi Suture Zone (MKSS) between SKT and the Mazar-Tianshuihai Terrane (MTT); and the Hongshanhu-Qiaoertianshan Suture (HQS) between MTT and the Karakorum Terrane (KKT) (Figure 1b; Zhang et al., 2019a; Wang et al., 2006; Pan, 2000).
The NKT is composed of a Paleoproterozoic basement and Neoproterozoic cover layers. The crystalline basement consists of the Paleoproterozoic Heluositan complex and the 2.41 Ga Akazi Pluton, and both underwent 1.9 Ga amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphism (Zhang C L et al., 2007). The cover layers comprise of the Neoproterozoic Sailajiazitage Group volcanic-sedimentary sequence and the Ailiankate Group clastic rocks which unconformably overlay the basement (Zhang C L et al., 2016).
The SKT is mainly composed of the Saitula Group and the Bulunkuole Group volcano-sedimentary sequences that all experienced 440 Ma amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphism (Zhang Q C et al., 2019a, b, 2018; Yuan et al., 2002). Some geologists believe that the Saitula Group and the Bulunkuole Group represent the Precambrian basement of SKT (Wang, 2004; Pan, 2000), while recent studies have shown they were deposited during the Early Paleozoic rather than the Late Neoproterozoic to Cambrian (Zhang et al., 2019a, b, 2018b), and have suggested that the SKT was a large accretionary wedge (Zhang et al., 2019a, b, 2018b; Yuan et al., 2002). This accretionary wedge included a seamount, arc volcano-sedimentary sequence, and Kudi ophiolite, formed via the southward subduction of the Proto-Tethys Ocean during the Early Paleozoic (Zhang et al., 2019a, b, 2018b; Yuan et al., 2002).
The MTT is a newly identified Precambrian terrane in the WKOB, and is mainly composed of crystallization basement rocks of the Mazar Complex (Zhang et al., 2018a, b) and is covered by the Tianshuihai Group (Zhang et al., 2018a, b). The Mazar Complex comprises 2.5 Ga bimodal volcanic rocks and sedimentary sequences, and underwent 2.0 Ga amphibolite-facies metamorphism (Zhang et al., 2018a, b; Ji et al., 2011). The Tianshuihai Group consists of a Late Paleozoic passive continental margin sedimentary sequence (Zhang et al., 2018b; Hu et al., 2016).
The KKT is mainly composed of Precambrian Heihezi Group basement rocks and a Paleozoic cover layer (Pan, 2000). The basement comprises crystalline schist, gneiss, quartzite, marble, phyllite, schist, and limestone, and the cover is a clastic-carbonate sedimentary sequence. However, the fundamental geological knowledge of the KKT is limited due to difficulties of access and harsh natural conditions.
Early Paleozoic magmatic rocks occur between the OKQS and the MKS in the WKOB, and are composed of abundant Cambrian–Ordovician Ⅰ-type arc granites, Silurian high-Ba/Sr and A-type granites, and Kudi ophiolitic mélanges (Figure 1b; Xiao et al., 2002; Pan, 2000). The Kudi ophiolitic mélanges contain a Buziwan Valley ultramafic body, Yixieke volcanic rock, and flysch. Previous studies have revealed that the ultramafic body and volcanic rocks were crystallized during the Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician (Li and Zhang, 2014, and references therein) and were formed in an initial subduction setting (Yuan et al., 2005).
The Qiaerlong Pluton is located at the northwestern margin of the WKOB with an exposed area of 27 km2 and is surrounded by the Late Carboniferous–Early Permian Tegeinaiqikedaban Formation to the west, the Early Carboniferous Talong Group to the east, the Late Carboniferous Kuerliang Group to the north and south (Figure 2a, HIGS, 2005). Field investigations reveal that the Qiaerlong Pluton is composed of quartz monzodiorite, quartz monzonite, and is invaded by syenogranite, peraluminous granite and diabase (Figures 2b, 3). However, detailed field relationship and outcropping range of different phases are still unclear due to the difficulties of access and harsh natural conditions of the studied area.
Petrographic observations reveal that quartz monzodiorites consist of hornblende (15%–30%), plagioclase (40%–50%), K-feldspar (10%–20%), and quartz (1%–10%) (Figure 4a); quartz monzonites consist of hornblende (10%–20%), plagioclase (40%–50%), K-feldspar (20%–30%), and quartz (1%–10%) (Figure 4b); syenogranites consist of hornblende (1%–5%), plagioclase (10%–20%), K-feldspar (40%–50%), and quartz (20%–30%) (Figure 4c); and peraluminous granite consist of garnet (1%–5%), mica (1%–5%), plagioclase (10%–15%), K-feldspar (30%–40%), and quartz (30%–35%) (Figure 4d). Accessory minerals in all different phases are dominated by titanite, apatite, and zircon, with minor columbite, thorite, and monazite in peraluminous granite (Figure 4d). Late-stage hydrothermal alteration is weak and represented by chloritization of hornblende and sericitization of feldspar (Figure 4). The original minerals of diabase are unrecognizable due to strong late-stage hydrothermal alteration.
We collected a total of four samples of quartz monzodiorite, seven samples of quartz monzonite, ten samples of syenogranite, six samples of peraluminous granite, and two samples of diabase from the Qiaerlong Pluton for whole-rock major and trace element analyses. Among them, six representative samples were selected for zircon and apatite U-Pb dating, including one quartz monzodiorite (19QEL-03: 38°25′38″N, 75°53′59″E), two quartz monzonite (17QEL-03: 38°25′28″N, 75°53′22″E; and 17QEL-29: 38°26′00″N, 75°55′19″E), one syenogranite (17QEL-06: 38°25′32″N, 75°53′27″E), one peraluminous granite (19QEL-Ⅲ-03: 38°26′11″N, 75°54′04″E), and one diabase (19QEL-01: 38°25′39″N, 75°48′57″E). All experiments were conducted at the State Key Laboratory of Ore Deposit Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, at the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Zircon and apatite were separated from each sample using traditional heavy liquid and magnetic separation techniques, handpicked under a binocular microscope, mounted with epoxy resin, and polished down to near-half sections to reveal internal structures for cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging, U-Pb dating, and Hf isotopic analyses.
Major elements were determined using an ARL Perform' X 4200 (Thermo Fisher) followed by the procedures described by Chen et al. (2012). Trace-element analyses were performed using a Perkin-Elmer Sciex ELAN DRC-e inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) following the procedures described by Liang et al. (2000). U-Pb dating and trace-element analyses for zircon were performed using a GeoLas Pro 193 nm ArF excimer laser connected to an Agilent 7500x ICP-MS, and for apatite were performed using a GeoLas Pro 193 nm ArF excimer laser connected to an Element XR ICP-MS. Both follow the procedures described by Tang et al. (2020). Data processing was performed using ICPMSDataCal (Liu et al., 2010, 2008) and Concordia plots and weighted mean ages were derived using Isoplot (Ludwig, 2003). Zircon Lu-Hf isotope analyses were performed using a RESOlution S-155 laser ablation system (ASI, Australia) connected to a Nu Plasma Ⅲ multicollector (MC) ICP-MS (Nu Instruments, Wrexham, UK) following the procedures described by Tang et al. (1998). The analytical methods and detailed procedures are given in Appendix A.
The zircons separated from quartz monzodiorite, quartz monzonite, and syenogranite are 50–300 μm long with length/width ratios of 1 : 1 to 3 : 1, and are subhedral and colorless, and show well-developed oscillatory zoning without core-mantle structure in the CL images (Figures 5a–5d), indicating magmatic affinity (Hoskin and Black, 2000; Rubatto and Gebauer, 2000). La-ICP-MC analysis reveals all of zircons had high Th/U ratios of 0.6–2.8 (Table S1), further indicating magmatic affinity (Wu and Zheng, 2004; Corfu, 2003; Williams et al., 1996).
Twenty analytical spots of quartz monzodiorite sample 19QEL-03 yielded a concordant age of 479 ± 4 Ma (MSWD = 0.17, 2σ), and a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 479 ± 3 Ma (MSWD = 0.17, 2σ, Figure 6a). Twenty-two analytical spots of quartz monzonite sample 17QEL-03 had a concordant age of 478 ± 3 Ma (MSWD = 0.42, 2σ), and a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 478 ± 2 Ma (MSWD = 0.40, 2σ, Figure 6b). Twenty-three analytical spots of quartz monzonite sample 17QEL-29 had a concordant age of 467 ± 3 Ma (MSWD = 0.87, 2σ), and a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 467 ± 2 Ma (MSWD = 0.98, 2σ, Figure 6c). Eighteen analytical spots of syenogranite sample 17QEL-06 had a concordant age 463 ± 3 Ma (MSWD = 2.90, 2σ), and a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 463 ± 4 Ma (MSWD = 2.60, 2σ, Figure 6d).
The CL images and La-ICP-MC analysis suggested that there were three different types of zircons in the diabase sample 19QEL-01 (Figure 5e). Type Ⅰ zircons were dark and had broad oscillatory zoning, and had a concordant age of 420 ± 5 Ma (MSWD = 0.12, 2σ) a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 421 ± 4 Ma (MSWD = 0.13, 2σ, Figure 6e), suggesting that the diabase was formed during the Middle Silurian. Type Ⅱ zircons were colorless and had well-developed oscillatory zoning, and yielded a concordant age of 463 ± 5 Ma (MSWD = 0.19, 2σ), and a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 463 ± 5 Ma (MSWD = 0.17, 2σ, Figure 6e), indicating that they were captured from the host syenogranite. Type Ⅲ zircons were colorless and had a core-mantle structure; the edges exhibited clear oscillatory zoning and were relatively dark, while the cores showed eroded structures with broad growth zoning and were relatively bright; 12 analytical spots for the core zircons had a concordant age of 1 059 ± 27 Ma (MSWD = 1.03, 2σ), and a weighted mean 207Pb/206Pb age of 1 048 ± 39 Ma (MSWD = 1.01, 2σ, Figure 6e); suggesting that they were inherited zircon.
The apatites separated from sample 19QEL-Ⅲ-03 were 150–300 μm long with length/width ratios of 1 : 1 to 2 : 1. They were colorless to light-brown, irregular in shape, and uniform in the CL images (Figure 5f). All 26 analytical spots had variable U (1.27 ppm–29.4 ppm) and Th (1.81 ppm–45.2 ppm) concentrations, with high Th/U ratios of 0.3–3.1 (Table S1), and yielded a U-Pb Tera-Wasserburg concordia lower intercept age of 429 ± 20 Ma (MSWD = 1.20, 2σ, Figure 6f).
Major and trace element data of all the samples from the Qiaerlong Pluton are listed in Table S2. The Early Ordovician granitoids can be divided into two groups: low-K and high-K granitoids. The low-K quartz monzodiorites have SiO2 (50.92 wt.%–56.49 wt.%), K2O (1.03 wt.%–1.94 wt.%) and alkalis (K2O + Na2O = 3.98 wt.%–6.12 wt.%) values (Figures 7a–7b), and are metaluminous with A/CNK and A/NK ratios of 0.67–0.88 and 1.93–2.33 (Figure 7c), respectively. The high-K quartz monzonites and syenogranite show variation in SiO2 (50.84 wt.%–73.33 wt.%), K2O (2.09 wt.%–4.49 wt.%), and alkalis (K2O + Na2O = 6.44 wt.%–8.03 wt.%) values (Figures 7a–7b), and are metaluminous to peraluminous with A/CNK and A/NK ratios of 0.87–1.27, and 1.23–2.50 (Figure 7c), respectively.
The Middle Silurian peraluminous granites and diabases belong to high-K and low-K calc-alkaline series (Figures 7a–7b), respectively. The former has high SiO2 (74.92 wt.%–75.88 wt.%) and high K2O (3.74 wt.%–4.43 wt.%), alkalis (K2O + Na2O = 7.97 wt.%–8.43 wt.%) contents, and is peraluminous with A/CNK and A/NK ratios of 1.15–1.22 and 1.25–1.30 (Figure 7c), respectively. The later contains low SiO2 (53.23 wt.%–56.31 wt.%) and K2O (1.48 wt.%–2.36 wt.%) and alkalis (K2O + Na2O = 5.48 wt.%–5.96 wt.%) contents, and is metaluminous with A/CNK and A/NK ratios of 0.85–1.00 and 1.98 (Figure 7c), respectively.
The Early Ordovician granitoids have variable total rare earth element (REE) of 59.7 ppm–197 ppm, and invariably show relative enrichment of light REEs (LREEs) and have variable Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.52–1.33) in chondrite-normalized REE patterns (Figures 8a–8c), and show Rb, Ba, K, and LREE enrichment, and Nb, Ta, P, Zr, Hf, and Ti depletion in primitive mantle-normalized multi-element diagrams (Figures 8d–8f).
The peraluminous granites have very low total REE contents of 41.5 ppm–57.9 ppm, and have remarkable negative Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.03–0.14), and display the tetrad effect in chondrite-normalized REE patterns (Figure 8g), and show Ba, Ta P, U, and Hf enrichment, and Nb, Sr, Zr, Hf, and Ti depletion in primitive mantle-normalized multi-element diagrams (Figure 8h). However, the diabases have high total REE content of 135 ppm–148 ppm, and show no Eu anomalies (δEu = 1) in chondrite-normalized REE patterns (Figure 8g), and show Rb, Ba, K, and LREE enrichment, and Nb, Ta, P, Zr, Hf, and Ti depletion in primitive mantle-normalized multi-element diagrams (Figure 8h).
The zircon in-situ Lu-Hf isotopes for the Qiaerlong Pluton were listed in Table S3 and shown in Figure 9. The quartz monzodiorite and quartz monzonite had positive zircon εHf(t) values of +0.6 to +9.9 and a two-stage Hf model age of 0.78–1.23 Ga. However, the syenogranite had variable εHf(t) values of -5.6 to +4.5 and two-stage Hf model ages of 1.07–1.63 Ga. The diabase and peraluminous granite also displayed variable εHf(t) values of -2.9 to +4.1 and two-stage Hf model ages of 1.06–1.45 Ga. But the captured zircons and inherited zircons of diabase showed positive εHf(t) values of +2.9 to +11.8.
Granitoids are usually classified as S-, I-, and A-types (Whalen et al., 1987; Collins et al., 1982). The studied Ordovician granitoids have low-moderate SiO2 contents (50.84 wt.%–73.33 wt.%), (K2O + Na2O)/CaO ratios (0.51–8.53), and FeOT/MgO ratios (1.71–2.64), suggesting that they did not experience strong separation and crystallization during formation (Figures 10a, 10d). The 10 000Ga/Al ratios (2.64–10.9) and Ga contents (22.5 ppm–105 ppm) were higher than those of A-type granites (2.6 and 20, respectively; Whalen et al., 1987), indicating A-type granite affinity (Figures 10a–10c). However, the studied rocks had lower Zr (30.1 ppm–195 ppm), Nb (4.52–18.2), and (Zr + Nb + Ce + Y) (80.6 ppm–320 ppm) values than A-type granites (250, 20, and 350, respectively; Whalen et al., 1987), indicating that the Ordovician granitoids do not belong to A-type granites (Figures 10b–10d). The petrographic observations show that the mafic minerals in the Ordovician granitoids are mainly hornblende (Figures 3–4), indicating that they have the characteristics of Ⅰ-type granite (Barbarin, 1999).
The Middle Silurian peraluminous granites are characterized by low mafic minerals (Figures 3–4), suggesting that they are leucogranites (Wu and Zheng, 2014). These rocks had a high SiO2 content (74.92 wt.%–75.88 wt.%), low Nb/Ta ratios (6.97–8.10) and Zr/Hf ratios (13.5–19.1), and were highly depleted in Ba, Sr, Ti, and Eu (Figure 8), and had high (K2O + Na2O)/CaO ratios (14.9–27.7) and FeOT/MgO ratios (3.63–5.22) (Figures 10a, 10d), indicating a high degree of fractionation (Wu et al., 2003; Chappell and White, 1974). Previous studies have shown that highly fractionated granite has the characteristics of A-type granite (Wu et al., 2017; Whalen et al., 1987). The peraluminous granites had higher 10 000Ga/Al (2.71–3.09) ratios and Ga (20.4–23.2) and Nb (24.4 ppm–31.6 ppm) values than those of A-type granites (2.6, 20 and 20, respectively; Whalen et al., 1987), suggesting an A-type granite affinity (Figures 10a–10c). However, the Zr (28.9 ppm–43.9 ppm) and (Zr + Nb + Ce + Y) (100 ppm–118 ppm) contents of these rocks were distinct from those of A-type granites (Figures 10b–10d; Whalen et al., 1987). The peraluminous granites had similar A/CNK ratios (1.15–1.22) to S-type granite (Chappell and White, 1974), and had peraluminous minerals (i.e., garnet and mica; Figures 4–5), indicative of S-type granite affinity (Barbarin, 1999). However, their zircon εHf(t) values (-2.9 to +2.0) were higher than S-type granite (< -6; Kemp et al., 2007).
Experimental studies have shown that the solubility of apatite in metaluminous to weakly peraluminous magma systems is very low and decreases with increasing SiO2 content along with crystallization differentiation; however, solubility increases with the increase in SiO2 in strongly peraluminous systems (Wu et al., 2003; Chappell and White, 1974). The Qiaerlong Pluton has variable A/CNK ratios (0.67–1.27), suggesting metaluminous to peraluminous conditions. The P2O5 content decreases with increasing SiO2 content in all the studied rocks (Figure 10e), which is consistent with the trend for Ⅰ-type granites (Wu et al., 2003; Chappell and White, 1992). Previous studies have revealed that Y-rich minerals will crystallize in the late stage of metaluminous Ⅰ-type magma; therefore, the Y content increases with increasing SiO2 content, and has a positive correlation with Rb content (Li et al., 2007). The Y vs. Rb diagram for the Qiaerlong Pluton (Figure 10e) also suggests a trend comparable to Ⅰ-type granite.
Moreover, magmatic temperatures are useful to diagnose genetic types of granitoids (Luo et al., 2020; Zhai et al., 2020; Qin et al., 2019; King et al., 1997), and is generally calculated and whole-rock zircon saturation thermometers (Watson and Harrison, 1983). The calculated whole-rock zircon saturation temperatures of quartz monzodiorite, quartz monzonite, syenogranite, and peraluminous granite of Qiaerlong Pluton are 667–754 ℃ (mean 709 ℃), 617–688 ℃ (mean 657 ℃), 767–813 ℃ (mean 790 ℃), and 670–695 ℃ (mean 682 ℃) (Table S2), respectively. These temperatures are similar to the average value of fractionated Ⅰ-type granite (760 ℃), but are obviously lower than the average value of for A-type granites (840 ℃; King et al., 1997), further suggesting that they belonged to Ⅰ-type granite.
Overall, although the Qiaerlong Pluton shows similarities with S-type and A-type granites, the overall characteristics of the rocks indicate that the pluton should be classified as Ⅰ-type granite.
The Early Ordovician granitoids had variable SiO2 contents (50.84 wt.%–73.33 wt.%) and had high Mg# (40–51) values, suggesting that they were derived from a mixed mafic and felsic source. The peraluminous granites were highly fractionated and, therefore, their major and trace elements do not reflect the characteristics of the magma source. However, zircon Hf isotopes show great potential in this regard (Griffin et al., 2002).
The zircon εHf(t) values varied by at least 5 εHf units for all studied rocks, with values of +2.1 to +9.9 for quartz monzodiorites, +0.6 to +6.8 for quartz monzonites, -5.6 to +4.5 for syenogranites, and -2.9 to +2.0 for peraluminous granites, indicating that all of them were originated from mixed sources (Figure 9a; Griffin et al., 2002).
The positive zircon εHf(t) values of quartz monzodiorites and quartz monzonites (+0.6 to +9.9) plotted above the CHUR reference line (Figure 9b), and two-stage Hf model ages (0.78–1.23 Ga) of them were comparable to the crystallization age (920–1 207 Ma) of inherited zircon in the diabase (Table S2), suggesting that they were derived from a mixed source of juvenile and lower crust. The syenogranites and peraluminous granites had variable zircon εHf(t) values (-5.6 to +4.5) that plotted on both sides of the CHUR reference line in the t-εHf(t) diagram (Figure 9b), indicating that they were derived from a mixing of partial melting of older and upper crust.
The diabase had high SiO2 (53.23 wt.%–56.31 wt.%) contents, low Fe2O3T (7.59–7.91), and MgO (3.48 wt.%–4.61 wt.%), and Mg# (48–54) values (Table S2), and had variable zircon εHf(t) values of -0.3 to +4.1 (Table S3), and displayed the characteristics of arc magma (Figures 8g–8h), suggesting that they were sourced from a depleted mantle, and underwent crustal contamination and crystallization (Münker et al., 2003; Saunders et al., 1992).
The diabase had Nb/La ratios ranging from 0.42 to 0.48 that were comparable to the Nb/La ratios of subcontinent lithospheric mantle (SCLM) melt (< 1; DePaolo and Daley, 2000), indicating a SCLM origin. The flat chondrite-normalized REE patterns of the diabase revealed hornblende residues that are stable in SCLM (Class and Goldstein, 1997), further suggesting a SCLM origin. They had similar Nb/U (5.89–9.71) ratios to continental crust (6.15; Rudnick and Gao, 2003), and contained captured zircon and inherited zircon (Figures 5–6), demonstrating that the diabase experienced crustal contamination during emplacement. Fractionation of hornblende results in low Nb/Ta and high Zr/Hf ratios because it has D(Nb/Ta) > 1 and D(Zr/Hf) < 1 (Foley et al., 2001; Tiepolo et al., 2001). The studied diabase has subchondritic Nb/Ta ratios (16.5–18.9) (19.9; Münker et al., 2003) and superchondritic Zr/Hf ratios (41.3–43.1) (34.3; Münker et al., 2003), revealing hornblende fractionation.
The diabase had high Ba/Th (71.4–135) and U/Th (0.26–0.44) ratios, and low Th/Ce (0.086–0.094) and Th/Nb (0.38–0.39) ratios, indicating that its source (SCLM) has been metasomatized by subducted fluids (Hawkesworth et al., 1997). This metasomatism may be ascribed to the subduction of the Proto-Tethys oceanic slab.
The Ordovician granitoids are enriched in LILEs (i.e., Rb, Ba, and LREEs) and depleted in HFSEs (i.e., Nb, Ta, P, Zr, Hf, and Ti), suggesting that they were formed under a subduction environment and that subducted sediments or fluids may have participated in the diagenesis process (Martin et al., 2005; Hawkesworth et al., 1997). Previous studies have revealed that subducted sediments were involved in the formation of the Datong Complex (Liu et al., 2014; Liao et al., 2010). The Ordovician granitoids had much higher Ba/Nb ratios (16.0–229) than MORB (6.9; Sun and McDonough, 1989) and much lower Nb/U (3.6–15.2) and Ta/U (0.3–1.5) ratios than MORB (46.1 and 2.6, respectively; Sun and McDonough, 1989), indicating the contribution of subducted fluids (Wang and Xiao, 2018; Plank and Langmuir, 1998; Hawkesworth et al., 1997; Brenan et al., 1995; McCulloch and Gamble, 1991; Tatsumi et al., 1986). In addition, petrographic observations revealed that mafic minerals in the Ordovician granitoids are dominated by hornblende (Figures 3–4), which further implies a hydrous magma source conducive to the preferential crystallization of hornblende (Sisson et al., 1996).
The Qiarerlong Pluton underwent variable crystallization fractionation (Figure 10), which is consistent with the trends of decreasing TiO2, Fe2O3T, and MgO with increasing SiO2 content (Figure 11). These negative trends are likely the result of the fractionation of mafic minerals (i.e., pyroxene, and hornblende). A positive correlation between Dy and Er in the studied pluton strongly suggests hornblende fractionation (Figure 12a), which is compatible with petrographic observations (Figures 3–4). This pluton had variable Eu, Ba, Sr, P, and Ti anomalies in the chondrite-normalized REE patterns and the primitive mantle-normalized multi-element diagrams (Figure 8), indicating the fractionation of plagioclase, apatite, and Fe-Ti oxides. Correlations between Rb/Sr and Sr, Sr and Eu*, Ba and Sr, and Ba and Rb also indicate the crystallization of plagioclase, K-feldspar, and hornblende (Figures 12b–12e). The Qiarerlong Pluton has variable REE contents that are controlled by REE-enriched accessory minerals (i.e., zircon, apatite, monazite, and allanite). Correlations between La and (La/Yb)N (Figure 12f) suggest the fractional crystallization of monazite and/or allanite.
Zr/Hf and Nb/Ta ratios are usually invariant during partial melting and fractional crystallization processes (Sun and McDonough, 1989). However, research shows that the low Zr/Hf and Nb/Ta ratios varied in magma that experienced extreme Ti-rich mineral fractional crystallization (Münker et al., 2003), or that was interactive with water (Nb/Ta < 5; Ballouard et al., 2016). The Middle Silurian peraluminous granites are highly fractionated (Figures 8, 10a, 10d) and have low Zr/Hf (13.5–19.1) and Nb/Ta (6.97–8.10) ratios indicative of a high degree of crystal fractionation (Yang et al., 2012; Wu et al., 2003). With extreme magmatic fractionation, zircon and columbite are conducive to preferential crystallization over hafnon and tantalite, which leads to the fractionation of Zr and Hf, and Nb and Ta (Linnen and Keppler, 2002, 1997). Garnet crystallization preferentially incorporates Zr over Hf (Yin et al., 2013; Linnen and Keppler, 2002), and mica crystallization preferentially partitions Nb over Ta at low temperatures (Stepanov et al., 2014; Linnen and Keppler, 1997). The petrographic observations revealed that the peraluminous granites contained garnet, biotite, and columbite-group minerals (Figures 3–4), suggesting that their minerals crystal fractionation was responsible for the low Zr/Hf and Nb/Ta ratios.
In summary, field and petrographic observations, geochronology, geochemistry, and zircon Hf isotopic compositions point to complex petrogenesis where a mixture of multiple sources magma (metasomatized SCLM, juvenile, old lower, and upper crust), and contamination coupled with subsequent variable crystal fractionation was responsible for the generation of the Qiarerlong Pluton.
Previous studies have shown that voluminous Cambrian–Ordovician magmatic rocks are widely exposed at the southeastern margin of the WKOB (Figure 1b) but are less clear at the northwestern margin because of widely developed Jurassic–Cretaceous molasses (Robinson et al., 2004) and the Late Paleozoic back-arc sedimentary basin (Zhang Z W et al., 2019, 2014; Ji et al., 2018; Zhang C L et al., 2018b, 2006; Jiang et al., 2008). Our new data suggest that the Qiaerlong Pluton crystallized during the Early Paleozoic (Figure 6). These ages indicate that this pluton was an Early Paleozoic complex at the northwestern margin of the WKOB. This is consistent with the age of the Datong Complex (435–473 Ma; Li et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2017; Jia et al., 2013; Liao et al., 2010) located in the south of the studied pluton, suggesting that the formation of the Qiaerlong Pluton was related to the tectonic evolution of the Proto-Tethys Ocean.
However, the specific dynamic links between this pluton and this subduction require further study as the location and subduction polarity of the ocean remain controversial in this area. Previous studies have proposed three contradictory models. Some researchers considered that the Proto-Tethys Ocean opened between the SKT and the MTT, and its northward and/or bidirectional subduction produced an Andean-type active continental margin and a back-arc basin with Kudi-Qimanyute ophiolite as a remnant (Yin et al., 2020; Zhang Q C et al., 2019a, b; Hu J et al., 2017; Ye et al., 2008; Xiao et al., 2005, 2000; Yuan et al., 2005; Wang, 2004; Wang et al., 2003, 2002). In contrast, some have suggested that there were two oceans between the north and south sides of the SKT, both being simultaneously subducted beneath the SKT (Wang et al., 2017, 2006). In addition, it has been suggested that the Proto-Tethys Ocean existed between the MTT and the NKT, and southward subduction beneath the MTT produced an accretionary wedge (SKT) on the north side of the MTT (Li et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2019, 2014; Zhang et al., 2019a, 2018b, c; Jia et al., 2013; Liao et al., 2010; Jiang et al., 2002).
These three models also provide different interpretations of the attributes for the SKT. It is generally believed that the Saitula Group was the basement of the SKT but recent research has shown that this group was deposited during the Early Paleozoic (Zhang et al., 2019a, b; 2018b) and the SKT was an Early Paleozoic large accretionary wedge during the southward subduction of the Proto-Tethys Ocean (Zhang et al., 2019a, b, 2018b; Xiao et al., 2005; Yuan et al., 2005). And the Early Paleozoic granitoids in this terrane lack ancient basement information (Yuan et al., 2003) and lack inherited zircon (Jia et al., 2013). However, these granitoids generally show two-stage Nd-Hf model ages of 1.12 to 2.51 Ga, indicating a contribution of Middle-Paleoproterozoic crust (Li et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2014; Jia et al., 2013; Liao et al., 2010). These model ages are distinct from the crystallization age of the basement of the Tarim Basin (the Paleoproterozoic Heluositan Complex and the 2.41 Ga Akazi Pluton; Zhang C L et al., 2007) and the MTT (the 2.5 Ga Mazar Complex; Zhang et al., 2018a; Ji et al., 2011), suggesting that the SKT may have a different crystallization basement. In addition, the studied intrusion includes both mantle-derived diabase, intermediate-acid crust-derived rocks, and 1.0 Ga-inherited zircons (Figures 6, 9), indicating that these rocks are controlled by the SKT basement material.
It is generally believed that the CCOB was the result of the closure of the Proto-Tethys Ocean, with the Tarim and North China Craton to the north, and the West Kunlun, Karakunlun, Qinling, and Qaidam Blocks to the south (Figure 1a; Wu et al., 2020). The Kudi Ophiolite Suite contains the Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician ultramafic body, volcanic rock, and flysch (Li and Zhang, 2014, and references therein), and has the characteristics of a forearc, and is considered as the remnant of the Proto-Tethys Ocean in the WKOB (Li and Zhang, 2014, Xiao et al., 2005; Yuan et al., 2005; and references therein). There is currently no report of Early Paleozoic ophiolite in the MTT, suggesting that the Proto-Tethys Ocean existed between the Tarim and the SKT. The Early Paleozoic magmatic rocks mostly occur in the SKT and the MTT, with some in the NKT (Figure 1b), indicating bidirectional subduction of the Proto-Tethys oceanic slab.
The Qiaerlong Pluton is located at the northwestern margin of SKT and its Ordovician granitoids show similar geochemical characteristics to the voluminous Cambrian–Ordovician magmatic rocks in the WKOB, enriched in LILEs and depleted in HFSEs (Figure 8; Li et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2019; Zhang C L et al., 2019a, b, 2018a; Zhang Q C et al., 2019b; Zhu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2017; Hu et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2014; Liao et al., 2010; Cui et al., 2007a, b; Xiao et al., 2005; Yuan et al., 2005), indicating that they are related to the subduction of the Proto-Tethys oceanic slab (Martin et al., 2005; Hawkesworth et al., 1997), and had low Nb, Y, and Rb values that plotted into the VAG area of the discrimination diagrams (Figure 12; Pearce et al., 1984), suggesting that the Ordovician granitoids were formed during the southward subduction of the Proto-Tethys oceanic slab. In addition, the zircon εHf(t) values of the Ordovician granitoids are similar to the Cambrian–Ordovician rocks in the SKT, but are different from NKT and MTT (Figure 9; Li et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2019; Zhang C L et al., 2019a, b, 2018a; Zhang Q C et al., 2019d; Zhu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2017; Hu et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2014; Liao et al., 2010; Cui et al., 2007a, b; Xiao et al., 2005; Yuan et al., 2005), further indicating that the Qiaerlong pulton were related to the southward subduction of the Proto-Tethys oceanic slab.
Previous studies reported a peak metamorphic age of 450 Ma, suggesting the subduction likely continued until Late Ordovician (Zhang C L et al., 2019a, b; Ye et al., 2008; Wang, 2008; Xiao et al., 2005). The leucogranites are usually formed after peak collision and are the products of the post-orogenic stage (Wu et al., 2015; Chung et al., 2005).
Based on our observations, Middle Silurian peraluminous granites (429 Ma) have lithofacies characteristic of leucogranites (Figures 3–4) and are highly differentiated granite in geochemistry (Figure 10), suggesting that they are associated with collision. Their high Nb, Y, and Rb values plot in the post-COLG field of discrimination diagrams (Figure 13; Pearce et al., 1984), indicating that the Proto-Tethys oceanic slab had been closed during Middle Silurian. The studied diabase had a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 421 ± 4 Ma (Figure 6e), which is consistent with the age of north Kudi A-type granite (404–420 Ma; Liu et al., 2014; Xiao et al., 2005; Yuan et al., 2002) and Duweituwei diabase (408.5 ± 7.3 Ma; Liu et al., 2016), further suggesting a Middle Silurian post-Orogenic extension of the WKOB.
On the basis of our petrological, geochronological, and geochemical data together with the temporal and spatial characteristics of the Early Paleozoic magmatic rocks in the WKOB (Figure 1b), we propose an integrated model for the tectonic evolution of the Proto-Tethys Ocean and the studied pluton (Figure 14). The Proto-Tethys Ocean was opened between the West Kunlun Terrane and Tarim Block during breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent (Zhang C L et al., 2019a; Metcalfe et al., 2017), and initial subduction began before 530 Ma (Yin et al., 2020; Zhang C L et al., 2018c), and bidirectional subduction then continued until the Late Ordovician. The southward subduction led to the formation of the studied Ordovician granitoids (Figure 14a). Early Silurian (456–440 Ma) closure of the ocean led to collisions between the West Kunlun Terrane and Tarim Blocks, and which in turn caused hornblende-facies to granulite-facies metamorphism (Zhang C L et al., 2019a, b, 2018b; Wang, 2008; Xiao et al., 2005). The Middle Silurian post-Orogenic extension may have been triggered by the break-off of the Proto-Tethys oceanic slab (Zhang et al., 2019c, 2016d; Zhu et al., 2018; Jia et al., 2013; Ye et al., 2008), resulting in the emplacement of the studied peraluminous and diabase (Figure 14b).
(1) LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating reveals that Qiaerlong Pluton is composed of 479 ± 3 Ma quartz monzodiorite, 467–472 Ma quartz monzonite, 463 ± 4 Ma syenogranite, 429 ± 20 Ma peraluminous granite, and 421 ± 4 Ma diabase.
(2) Quartz monzodiorite and quartz monzonite were likely derived from a mixed source of juvenile crust and old lower crust, while syenogranite and peraluminous granite were likely generated by a mix source of old lower and upper crust. Diabase was derived from partial melting of metasomatized SCLM and experienced crustal contamination.
(3) Variable crystal fractionation was responsible for the generation of the Qiarerlong Pluton.
(4) The Ordovician granitoids were ascribed to southward subduction of the Proto-Tethys Ocean, and the Middle Silurian diabase and highly fractionated peraluminous granite (leucogranite) were mostly likely associated with slab break-off of the Proto-Tethys Ocean.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: This contribution was financially supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC Nos. U1603245, 41703051, U1812402), the Chinese Academy of Sciences "Light of West China" Program, and the Natural Science Foundation of Guizhou Province (No. [2018]1171). The authors thank Mr. Guangbing Ding and Mr. Hongjun Qin for fieldwork assistance, and are grateful to Dr. Yanwen Tang (U-Pb dating), Ms. Shuqing Yang (whole-rock major element), Ms. Jing Hu and Ms. Yan Huang (whole-rock trace element), Dr. Youwei Chen (Hf isotope), and Ms. Shaohua Dong (Cathodoluminescence) for experiment analysis. The final publication is available at Springer via https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-021-1453-8.| Ballouard, C., Poujol, M., Boulvais, P., et al., 2016. Nb-Ta Fractionation in Peraluminous Granites: A Marker of the Magmatic-Hydrothermal Transition. Geology, 44(3): 231–234. https://doi.org/10.1130/g37475.1 |
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