Figure
1.
Sampling location (the triangle dot) map.
| Citation: | Zhaokai Xu, Anchun Li, Fuqing Jiang, Tiegang Li. Paleoenvironments Recorded in a New-Type Ferromanganese Crust from the East Philippine Sea. Journal of Earth Science, 2006, 17(1): 34-42.
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We attempt to recover the paleoenvironments recorded in the accretion of a typical newtype hydrogenetic ferromanganese crust from the deep water areas of the East Philippine Sea. From detailed geochemical and U-series chronological studies, analysis of major and minor elements performed by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry(XRF)and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer(ICP-MS), three major accretion periods and corresponding paleoenvironments can be ascertained. The first period is a faster accretion period in the terminal Late Miocene to the Early Pliocene with looser structure and higher volcanic detritus content, corresponding to the active Antarctic bottom waters and depressed temperature from the intermediate Middle Miocene to the Early Pliocene. The second period is a pulse of pelagic clay deposition at the Early to Middle Pliocene, reflecting the shrinkage of the Antarctic bottom waters and the global temperature elevation of this period. The third period is a slower accretion period from the Middle Pliocene, which indicates the more violent activity of Antarctic bottom waters once again and more depressed temperature than the first period, facilitating the accretion of a more compact and pure ferromanganese zone. The paleoceanographic histories of these studied areas had not been made clear in previous research.
Hydrogenetic marine ferromanganese crusts have received much attention over the past several decades, not only as potential mineral resources enriched in Mn, Co, Cu, Ni, and Pt (Manheim, 1986) but also as potential paleoceanographic records during their growth (Banakar et al., 2003; McMurtry et al., 1994; Hein et al., 1992).
Former research has demonstrated that variations in the chemical composition of seamount ferromanganese crusts can reflect the influence of changing prevailing environments over the course of their formation (Banakar et al., 1997; Wen et al., 1997; McMurtry et al., 1994; Hein et al., 1992; De Carlo, 1991; Neumann and Stueben, 1991). The present study is aimed at elucidating the paleoenvironments during the accretion of a special specimen sampled from the surface of unsolid sediment in the deep water depth of the East Philippine Sea, which is a new-type hydrogenetic ferromanganese crust different to the previously researched seamount crusts both in deep and sedimentary environments. It has been proved that its elemental distributions can also be used to infer temporal changes in paleoceanography over its growth course, just as the seamount crusts. Its depth was around or below the carbonate compensation depth (CCD) since its formation, avoiding the general phosphatization action found in seamount crusts. Thus, its paleoenvironmental recording is more believable (Xu et al., 2006). Through finescale geochemical and chronological studies on a typical new-type crust, we discuss the paleoenviron mentchange during accretion.
The studied crust was sampled on the surface of unsolid clay at a water depth of 4 837 m from the Parece Vela basin of the East Philippine Sea (17°53.27′ N, 136°46.47′E). The depth of the crust is below CCD (Ujiie, 1975) and its location is very near the DSDP Leg 59, hole 449 (Scott et al., 1981; Fig. 1).
The crust is brown-dark, sandwich structure. Top 0 - 14 mm is the younger, compact crust zone, 14 - 51 mm is an accretion gap of the crust with pelagic clay sediment, and 51 - 65 mm is the older, relatively compact crust zone.
Sub-samples of the crust were taken using a surgical blade at 2 to 5 mm intervals within a small portion of the crust having nearly uniform surface texture and maximum thickness (65 mm). Scraped layers were ground to 200 mesh in an agate mortar. The chemical analysis was measured in the Central Laboratory of the Institute of Geophysical & Geochemical Exploration, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. The age dating was finished by the U-series Laboratory of the Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Chemical analysis of major and minor elements was performed by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS). The accuracy of analyses was ascertained by simultaneous analysis of China standard material GSD-9 and GSD-l0. Precision was always better than± 5% of the reported value except for Cu which is 6.6%.
Rare earth elements (REE) were determined by ICP-MS after the solutions were subjected to cation chromatographic extraction of REE following standard procedures. The accuracy of analyses was also ascertained by simultaneous analysis of GSD-9 and GSD-l0. Precision was 4% or better.
Growth rates for the surface layers of the crust were calculated using the 230Thexc radiometric method.
Dating methods for ferromanganese crusts are numerous, and the U-series and 10Be radiometric methods are most popular and useful (Li and Cheng, 2004; Su et al., 2004; Banakar and Hein, 2000; Chabaux et al., 1995; Eisenhauer et al., 1992; Banakar and Borole, 1991; Segl et al., 1984). Here, we used the U-series radiometric method to measure the accretion rates of the crust's surface section (Banakar and Hein, 2000; Chabaux et al., 1995; Eisenhauer et al., 1992; Banakar and Borole, 1991). The 230Thexcdating method shows that the younger crust zone has a fairly constant slow growth in the uppermost part (4.2 mm/Ma, Fig. 2). Microscope analysis showed no visible inner accretion gap and structural change. The accretion rate of the uppermost part can be used as the average accretion rate of the whole younger zone. Thus the age of the younger zone should be about 3.33 Ma, which is since the Middle Pliocene. The intermediate zone displays a short-lived episode of very rapid growth of pelagic sediment at the Early to Middle Pliocene. The older zone has an anomalous structure and higher detrital component content than the younger zone, which indicates the abundant supply of detritus and stronger bottom hydrodynamic conditions. Crusts with these characteristics always have a faster accretion rate (Liang et al., 1994; Friedrich and SchmitzWiechowski, 1980). The accretion time of the older crust zone should not be more than 3 Ma, which should correspond to the terminal Late Miocene to the Early Pliocene period.
Research results on the seamount crusts demonstrated that variations in the composition of ferromanganese crust are mainly related to water depth, CCD, accretion rates, bottom current activity and depth of the oxygen-minimum zone during their formation (Cai and Huang, 2002; Halbach and Puteanus, 1984). Subsequently others provided further evidence demonstrating that variations in the chemical composition of crusts can reflect the influence of changing prevailing environmental conditions over the course of their formation (Shi et al., 2004; Banakar et al., 1997; Wen et al., 1997; McMurtry et al., 1994; Hein et al., 1992; De Carlo, 1991; Neumann and Stueben, 1991). From the elemental profile analysis, we can reflect the change of paleoenvironments in the crust growth areas, international ocean circumfluent mode and even the paleogeography and paleoclimate. Thus, the chemical composition of crusts can be connected with the change of paleoenvironments and even the global paleoclimate (Banakar et al., 2003; Cai and Huang, 2002).
Results of the major, minor and REE constituent analyses of the studied crust are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3.
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From the major and trace elemental profiles of the studied crust (Figs. 3 and 4), we can see that the distribution of these elements is similar to macroscopic observation, and can also be divided into three major zones. The older and younger zones are typical crust zones with a higher hydrogenetic elements content (Mn, Fe, P, Ca, Ti, Cu, Co, Ni, Zn, Pb, Cr, Ba and V) and lower detrital elements content (Al and Sc). The detrital element content of the older zone is slightly higher than that in the younger zone. The hydrogenetic elements content displays a decreasing trend from bottom to top in these zones while the detrital elements content increases. This indicates that the hydrogenetic elements combined into these zones from surrounding seawater lessened with the accretion of each typical crust zone and as more detrital material appeared.
The second zone is an accretion gap in the crust, with extreme higher detrital elements content and corresponding lower hydrogenetic elements content compared to the typical crust zones, but little elements content change within it. In this zone, the Ca/P ratios are much higher than is generally found in carbonate-fluorapatite (CFA) of the seamount crusts (Banakar et al., 1997) but are similar to pelagic clay (Xu et al., 2006). This indicates that this crust zone has been under CCD since its formation, which had not been reconstructed by obvious phosphatization action, and basically preserved the paleoenvironments during its formation. We can also see from Figs. 3 and 4 that all the analyzed major and trace elements have strong correlations, among which, the hydrogenetic elements are strongly positively correlated (R > 0.75), indicating their similar genesis and coherence in elemental change during crust accretion. The strongly passive correlations between them and detrital elements (R < - 0.86) indicate that these two kinds of elements have a distinct source and origin.
REE are good geochemical indicators, with an important significance for crust genesis, genetic area characteristics and sedimentary environments (Banakar et al., 1997; De Carlo, 1991; German and Elderfield, 1990).
The North America shale compound (NASC)-normalized REE patterns of different crust zones are shown in Fig. 5. NASC-normalized REE patterns of typical crust zones have a weak loss of the heavy REE and obvious positive Ce-anomalies, which are similar to the abyssal hydrogenetic ferromanganese nodules and seamount crusts but different from the seawater. The Ce-anomaly degree of the younger crust zone is a little stronger than that of the older zone. The positive Ce-anomaly is because of the special Ce element feature to the other REE, which is easily transformed from Ce2+ to Ce4+ and adsorbed to the ferromanganese oxides in the seawater (Banakar et al., 1997). The weak loss of the heavy REE is due to these elements forming relatively stable hydroxide colloids and avoiding adsorption to the ferromanganese oxides phase (Hein et al., 1988). The elemental association analyses also show a high positive relationship between Fe, Mn and light REE (R = 0.80 and 0.88), especially Ce (R = 0.85 and 0.88). They all indicate the high adsorption of ferromanganese oxide to light REE, especially Ce.
The NASC-normalized REE pattern of the intermediate clay zone shows a weak enrichment of the heavy REE and weak negative Ce-anomaly (Fig. 5), which is distinct from typical crust zones and indicates a great difference in their origin and forming environments.
From the REE elemental profiles (Fig. 6), the variety between the different zones can be seen in more detail. In typical crust zones, the contents of total REE (TREE) and light REE (TCe) both decrease from bottom to top. This indicates that with the accretion of crust and its depletion to the REE in seawater, the REE (especially the light REE) that could be combined into these zones from seawater reduced over time, showing the strong adsorption of crust to REE, especially the light REE (Hein et al., 1988). In the intermediate zone, the content of REE shows little change. The application of the Ceanomaly in the crust is an incisive tool for elucidating paleoredox conditions (Banakar et al., 1997; De Carlo, 1991; German and Elderfield, 1990). The high correlation between Ce-anomalies, Fe (R = 0.80), and Mn (R = 0.64) in the older and younger zones indicates that the Ce-anomalies in these zones can also be applied to reflect the paleoredox conditions during their formation (Banakar et al., 1997).
We can see from Fig. 6 that each zone has its special Ce-anomaly character. The Ce-anomalies both in the older and younger zones are high, which indicates that these zones were both formed in high oxidizing conditions. The higher Ce-anomaly degree of the younger zone compared to the older zone indicates that the former was formed in stronger oxidizing conditions. But their diversification trends are distinct. In the older crust zone, the Ce-anomaly values gradually decrease from bottom to top, which indicates that the oxidizing degree of the surroundings during its accretion gradually reduced and went against the accretion of this zone. Adding the consumption of the REE in the surrounding seawater with its accretion, the crust zone thus formed had less and less REE content. In the younger crust zone, the Ce-anomaly values gradually increase, which indicates that the oxidizing degree of the surroundings during the accretion of this crust zone gradually increased and made for the accretion of this zone. The crust zone thus formed should have higher REE contents if the source influence is neglected, but the REE contents of this zone also show a reducing trend. This should be caused by the consumption of the REE in the surrounding seawater with the accretion of this crust zone. In the intermediate zone, Ce-anomalies are generally low and indicate a slight oxidizing degree of the homochronous surrounding seawater, which went against the accretion of the crust and formed an accretion gap in the crust.
The location of the studied crust is very near the DSDP Leg 59, hole 449. The following is a detailed discussion of the paleoenvironments recorded in the crust, combining the data of this hole and surrounding areas.
From the data of hole 449, we know that the sediments of the Parece Vela basin since the Late Miocene are all pelagic clay. The average sediment rate is not more than 3.4 mm/ka (Scott et al., 1981). For lack of fossils and volcanic ash layers in the hole sediments of this period, paleoceanographic research in the studied areas is very limited (Hussong and Uyeda, 1982; Scott et al., 1981).
Based on the U-series dating results and elemental profiles, we can divide the accretion of the studied crust into three major periods. The first period is the quicker accretion, older crust zone period from the terminal Late Miocene to the Early Pliocene. The crust zone has a looser structure and higher volcanic detritus. The second period is an accretion gap of the crust with pelagic clay sediment at the Early to Middle Pliocene. The third period is the slower accretion, younger crust zone period from the Middle Pliocene. It has a more compact structure and higher hydrogenetic elements content.
The terminal Late Miocene to the Early Pliocene older crust zone period was during the active Antarctic bottom waters (AABW) activity and low temperature period from the intermediate Middle Miocene to the Early Pliocene (Huang et al., 1997; Savin, 1977; Shackleton and Kennett, 1975). Owing to the influence of the intense activity of AABW in this period, nearby western and northern Pacific bottom seawater became cold and oxidizing (Huang et al., 1997; Savin, 1977). It would also affect the studied areas and promote the fast accretion of the older crust zone. The nearby volcanic activity on the West Mariana Ridge had ceased during the Early or intermediate Middle Miocene (Scott et al., 1981), but the high metal content in seawater from the volcanic action formed the initial ferromanganese film and grew quickly under the apt paleoenvironment. The volcanic materials of the studied area were rich in Fe and poor in Mn (Hussong and Uyeda, 1982), and the formed crusts gave priority to the FeOOH fraction. With the integration of nearby volcanic detritus into the crust, the older crust zone had a higher detritus content, faster accretion rate and looser anomaly structure. With the accretion of the crust and its depletion to the hydrogenetic elements in surrounding seawater, combining the reduction of the oxidizing degree and the rise of global temperature (Savin, 1977), the surrounding environment became unfavorable for the accretion of the crust, thus the hydrogenetic elements content in this zone became less and less.
The intermediate zone is an accretion gap of the crust with pelagic clay sediment. At that time, the studied area and surrounding regions were all relatively stable, without large scale volcanic activity (Hussong and Uyeda, 1982; Scott et al., 1981), thus the sediment at this period had little volcanic material. This gap should be caused by the change in surrounding seawater conditions. According to previous research, this period corresponds to the shrinkage of the AABW and the global temperature rise at the Early to Middle Pliocene (Huang et al., 1997; Savin, 1977; Shackleton and Kennett, 1975). They were all unfavorable to the accretion of the crust and formed an accretion gap.
The younger crust zone formed slowly from the Middle Pliocene, with a more compact structure and higher hydrogenetic elements content. The oxidizing conditions of the ambient seawater were stronger than the first crust accretion period due to the intensity of AABW activity once again. The corresponding reduction in the bottom seawater temperature from the Middle Pliocene facilitated the accretion of purer crust (Huang et al., 1997; Xu, 1997; Segl et al., 1989; Savin, 1977; Shackleton and Kennett, 1975). The main source of this crust zone was the Mariana Ridge volcanic material, which also had high Fe and low Mn (Hussong and Uyeda, 1982). As this volcanic activity was far away from the crust location and the block of the West Mariana Ridge, little volcanic detritus could arrive and be combined into the crust, so the younger crust zone had a higher hydrogenetic elements content, lower detritus content, slower growth rate and a more compact structure. Similar to the older crust zone, with the accretion of the crust, the source hydrogenetic elements in seawater became less and less, although as conditions remained favorable to its accretion (Savin, 1977), the formed crust zone had less and less hydrogenetic elements content and the detritus content correspondingly increased. This indicates that the material sources played a principal role in crust accretion.
It is obvious that the different accretion periods of the new-type deepwater crust correspond to distinct paleoenvironments, which further confirms the notion that geochemical signatures and elemental distribution within a hydrogenetic ferromanganese crust could be used to infer paleoenvironments during its growth (Cai and Huang, 2002; Banakar et al., 1997; Wen et al., 1997). Through the study of the chemical character of the selected typical new-type ferromanganese crust, we can not only reflect the change in paleoenvironment of the studied areas, but we can also further study the global bottom current change and global paleoclimate variation. Consequently, we can connect the accretion of crust and the paleoenvironments during its formation, even the global paleoclimate change. Hydrogenetic ferromanganese crust has become an important area of research in paleoceanography and global paleoclimate change, and will continue to be an important study direction in the future (Cai and Huang, 2002).
(1) U-series radiometric dating results show that the growth rate of the surface section of the new-type deepwater hydrogenetic ferromanganese crust is 4.2 mm/Ma, from which we can ascertain that the younger crust zone formed from the Middle Pliocene, the intermediate clay zone was formed at the Early to Middle Pliocene and the older zone was formed in the terminal Late Miocene to the Early Pliocene.
(2) Depth profiles of major, trace elements and REE reveal that the older zone has a weaker Ceanomaly degree, higher detritus content and looser anomaly structure, which indicates that this zone was formed in weaker oxidizing degree conditions, with more volcanic detritus incorporated and faster growth. The intermediate zone is an accretion gap of the crust with pelagic clay sediment, indicating disadvantageous surrounding conditions for accretion. The younger crust zone has a stronger Ce-anomaly degree, lower detritus content and more compact structure, which indicates that this zone was formed in stronger oxidizing degree conditions, with less volcanic detritus and slower growth.
(3) Our work provides further evidence supporting the hypothesis that elemental distributions in the new-type deepwater hydrogenetic ferromanganese crust are also valid for paleoenvironment reconstruction. Based on that, we discuss the unclear paleoceanographic history of the new-type crust from the Late Miocene.
The different accretion periods of the crust correspond to distinct paleoenvironments. The older and younger crust zones correspond to the activities of the AABW and strong temperature drop, which provided fitting paleoenvironments to the accretion of the crust. The material from the volcanic activity of the West Mariana and Mariana Ridges provided a rich source for the accretion of these two crust zones. During accretion, source hydrogenetic elements in surrounding seawater reduced. Although the conditions may have remained favorable for accretion, the formed crust zone had less and less hydrogenetic elements content and the detritus content correspondingly increased. This indicates that the material sources played a principal role in crust accretion. The intermediate zone corresponds to the shrinkage of the AABW and the global temperature rise at the Early to Middle Pliocene, which was unfavorable for crust accretion. Due to a lack of material sources in this period's seawater, an accretion gap of the crust was formed. The paleoceanographic histories of these areas since the Late Miocene have not been made clear in previous studies due to the absence of paleontological fossil and volcanic ash layers of this period's sediments.
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Zhaokai Xu, Anchun Li, Fuqing Jiang, Tiegang Li. Paleoenvironments Recorded in a New-Type Ferromanganese Crust from the East Philippine Sea. Journal of Earth Science, 2006, 17(1): 34-42.
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