Figure
1.
For the spatial distribution of debris layer on Glacier No. 72, the color area is covered with a debris layer.
| Citation: | Lin Wang, Zhongqin Li, Feiteng Wang. Spatial Distribution of the Debris Layer on Glaciers of the Tuomuer Peak, Western Tian Shan. Journal of Earth Science, 2011, 22(4): 528-538. doi: 10.1007/s12583-011-0205-6
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One of the most common characteristics of glacier in Tuomuer Peak, western Tianshan, is the presence of a debris mantle masking a large portion of their ablation zones (Li et al., 2010; Shi et al., 2005; Mountaineering and Expedition Term of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1985). The existence of a debris cover exerts a tremendous influence on the ablation process itself. When the debris cover was relatively thin, in the order of a few centimeters, the rate of surficial lowering increased when compared to clean surficial ice. However, when the debris cover exceeds a critical thickness, defined by the point in which the ablation rate for debris covered glacier ice is the same as for debris free ice, the ablation rate is retarded (Nicholson and Benn, 2006; Sugiyama, 2003; Mattson et al., 1993; Khan, 1989). There is some research on this, such as the run-off and convergence of the glacier in the flow cross section of the course (Rana et al., 1997), application of remote sensing methods and melting—mode for glacier change (Mihalcea et al., 2008). Therefore, the study of spatial distribution and characteristic of debris layer plays a very important role on the behavior of glaciers. In the early mid-20th century, some researchers started to pay attention to the debris layer, especially on thermal process, and agreed that the thermal process covered by debris layer on the glacier is completely different from the clean surficial ice or snow, and this is very significant on the glacier surface energy balance and glacial melting covered by debris layer (Nicholson and Benn, 2006; Nakawo and Rana, 1999; Nakawo and Young, 1981; Östrem, 1959).
Since the 1960s, the research of variations in ablation rates covered by debris was carried out successively on some reference glacials. Observations and experiments on the glaciers were done to determine the point of how much the debris layer thickness reduced the ablation of the ice beneath. For example, Mattson et al. showed that ablation under debris is less than that on bare ice when the debris layers is thicker than 30 mm in Rakhiot Glacier, while it is greater when the layer of debris is thinner (Mattson et al., 1993). Kayastha et al. found that the point of variations in ablation rates covered by debris layers is 5 cm (Kayastha et al., 2000). The same research was carried out in Kaskawalsh Glacier, Lauteraargletscher Glacier, Isfallsglaciaren Glacier, Barpu Glacier, Kerqikaer Glacier, and several other glaciers (Han et al., 2010, 2005; Adhikary et al., 2000; Khan, 1989; Mattson and Gardner, 1989). The main goal of their research was to estimate the ice ablation under a debris cover on the basis of heat transfer theory and energy conservation theory and tried to establish a simple numerical model (Tim and Ben, 2010; Zhang et al., 2004; Shin, 2003; Rana et al., 1997). In recent years, remote sensing methods are being applied to this field study. Remote sensing methods, such as using ASTER satellite and ground-based surface temperature measurements to derive supraglacial debris cover and thickness patterns on Miage Glacier (Mihalcea et al., 2008), were used.
Theoretical method of variations in ablation rates covered by debris layers has matured. Nevertheless, aiming at the system research on distribution of debris cover of the entire region is weak. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to describe differential debris cover thickness and ablation rates on debris covered within the three glaciers to contrast the result with those obtained from similar investigations within this region and discuss the distribution characteristics of debris covered in Tuomuer Peak.
Glaciers in the Tianshan Mountains are mainly concentrated in the Khan Tengri-Tuomuer Knot in the China-Kirgizstan borderland (41º10'N–42º40'N and 79º20'E–80º55'E), where more than 40 peaks above 6 000 m a.s.l. constitute the largest glacierized center of the Tianshan Mountains, and about 60% of the land is higher than 4 000 m a.s.l.. Tuomuer Peak is the highest in Tianshan Mountains, an altitude is 7 435 m a.s.l.. One of the most common characteristics of glacier in this region is the presence of a debris mantle masking a large portion of its ablation zones (Shi et al., 2008).
There are 1 357 glaciers in the knot, 4 093 km2 in area, and with an ice storage of 424 km3 in volume, accounting for 8.5%, 26.5%, and 40.5% of the whole Tianshan Mountains, respectively. The average ELA (equilibrium line altitude) is calculated as 4 280 m a.s.l., in which annual precipitation is about 750–1 000 mm; annual mean temperature is -7–11 ℃, and summer temperature is about -1 ℃. The favorable topographic and climatic conditions nourish many large glaciers (Shi et al., 2008). The disparate altitude, plentiful precipitation, and rapid ablation on the glacier tongue to determine the glacier have the role of great energy and fast glacier velocity. These characteristics make the glaciers have strong erosion and transport-capacity.
The objective of this article is to describe the spatial distribution of the debris layer on glaciers and the variation ablation rates on debris covered within the three glaciers (Glacier No. 72, Glacier No. 74, Tuomuer Glacier) and discuss the distribution characteristics of debris covered in Tuomuer Peak. The glaciers research on the region of Tuomuer Peak is weak, largely because there is an absence of long-term systematic glacier observation, and the satellite images are affected by snow cover. Therefore, this article based on the field work carried out on the zone of Tuomuer Peak, western Tian Shan, during the period May 2008 to September 2009, to get the spatial distribution of debris layer by detailed measurements on debris thickness, and the variation in ablation rates on glacier to set up six mass balance sticks on difference thickness debris layer and further by Spot-5 (5 m, 2005) high-resolution satellitic image applied by remote sensing and geographic information systems approach to research the spatial distribution of debris layer on the zone of Tuomuer Peak.
The outlines and debris layer of glaciers were mapped in 2005 using a Spot-5 satellitic image with a resolution of 5 m. Excellent images ensured clear glacier boundaries, minimizing uncertainty. The image was obtained for cloud-free conditions, making it immune to potential error and, at the end of the ablative period when snow-cover was minimal, to avoid perturbation in delineating the glacier boundary. Another important factor in determining glacier outlines is debris-covered and the lateral moraines around the ice tongue, so field investigation plays an important role in this process.
The Spot-5 satellitic image was orthorectified using methodologies described by Paul et al. (2004) and PCI Geomatica 9.1 Orthoengine software (Kutuzov and Shahgedanova, 2009; Svoboda and Paul, 2009). Thirty ground control points (GCPs) from the field investigation or the topographic maps (1964) were selected (using the geometric correction tool available in ERDAS Imagine 9.0) to match the satellitic image with the root mean square error (RMSE) value limited to below 0.5 pixels. A digital elevation model (DEM) with 25 m grid spacing was used to derive the elevation and slope orientation data for glaciers. Extracted glaciers information from satellitic images by manual interpretation. Data assessment conducted under GLIMS framework was confirmed that artificial interpretation remains the best tool for extracting higher level information from satellitic images for glaciers, especially when glaciers are covered by debris (Raup et al., 2007).
Glacier No. 72 (41º45.51'N, 79º54.43'E) is a compound valley glacier, located in Kumalike River, which is a branch of Aksu River in Tuomuer Peak, western Tianshan. According to Glacier Inventory of China (Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology and Geocryology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1987), the glacier number is 5Y673P0072, the elevation from the glacier terminal to the highest point is between 3 720–5 986 m a.s.l., and the area of Glacier No. 72 is 5.62 km2. Glacier No. 72 consists of mainly a lateral moraine that covers both sides of glacier tongue and is located at an altitude between 3 720 and 4 250 m a.s.l.. The middle bare ice part is not completely clean and should have an impact on the melting of the ice. The debris area of Glacier No. 72 is 0.87 km2, and the debris-covered surface accounts for 15.5% of the total area.
Figure 1 shows the spatial distribution of debris layer on Glacier No. 72; the vertically measure line of debris thickness is designed based on the actual situation arranged on both glacier sides. The horizontal measure line is located at an laid in an altitude of 3 950 m a.s.l. and consist of six mass balance sticks that were used to measure the variations in ablation rates covered by difference thickness debris layers. According to the debris thickness measure data, applied by GIS (geographic information system) technology to recover spatial distribution of debris layer on the whole Glacier No. 72 (Fig. 1), the following finding can be concluded. The thickness of the overall vertical debris distribution is constantly thinning when the glacier increases with altitude. The maximum average thickness of debris between 3 800 and 4 050 m a.s.l. is 10.2 cm. The average thickness of debris above 4 050 m a.s.l. is 4.9 cm. For the overall distribution from the horizontal, the regular pattern of debris thickness from west to east is diminishingnone-increasing, the average thickness of debris in the west side and the east side respectively is 16 and 7 cm, the thickness of debris in the west side is higher than the east side, and the debris area in west side is also larger than the east side which is 0.56 and 0.32 km2, respectively.
Heat flux with rain should also be taken into account in estimating melt amounts of debris-covered ice. Some of the rain falling on the debris-covered glacier will evaporate; the rest will percolate through the debris layer, and it will supply heat to melt the ice beneath it. Observational results in the Lirung Glacier indicated that 25% of the total rainfall evaporated at that debris-covered glacier. However, the heat flux with percolated water has no effect on the heat needed to melt ice under the debris (Sakai et al., 2004). Because the thermal process covered by debris layer on the glacier is completely different from the clean surficial ice or snow, this is very significant on the glacier surface energy balance and glacial melting covered by debris layer. When the thickness of debris is less than a critical value, the debris will accelerate melting. When the thickness of debris exceeds a critical value, the melting will decrease rapidly (Mattson et al., 1993).
Relationship between debris cover thickness and ablation, which was derived from six mass balance sticks that were used to measure variations in ablation rates located on an altitude of 3 950 m on Glacier No. 72 (Fig. 2), shows that the critical value of debris thickness is 4 cm, which is similar to the other sample glaciers (Mattson et al., 1993; Khan, 1989; Mattson and Gardner, 1989; Östrem, 1959). Its relationship, as shown in Fig. 2 (hereafter termed the Östrem curve), has been used as the basis of empirical methods of estimating melt beneath a debris layer (Konovalov, 2000). However, the amount in which debris alters ablation rate compared to that of clean ice, and the threshold debris thickness in determining whether melt rate is accelerated or inhibited, which varies under the influence of local climate and debris lithology (Conway and Rasmussen, 2000; Nakawo and Rana, 1999). From the figure, we can conclude that, when the thickness of debris is less than 4 cm, the melting of the ice will accelerate. When the thickness of debris exceeds 4cm, the melting of the ice will decrease rapidly.
On Glacier No. 72, the area of debris that exceeds 4 cm is 0.66 km2. This is approximately 11.7% of the whole glacier, which will experience a decreasing melting process. The area of debris that is less than 4 cm is 0.21 km2, and with clean ice area accounts for 88.3% of the whole glacier, this area will experience an accelerating melting progress. According to the mass balance data of variation in ablation rate, the maximum accelerated ablation rate of all debris covered is 20.8%, and the maximum decreased ablation rate of all debris covered is 77.8%. In spite of the debris layer on Glacier No. 72, the overall effect is still that the glacier is experiencing an accelerating melting progress.
Figure 3 is a scatter diagram that shows the relationship between log10 mean daily ablation and debris cover thickness. The strongest correlation (R=0.85) exists between log10 mean daily ablation and debris cover thickness, suggesting a nonlinear relationship. Although there is a high correlation between the rate of ablation and thickness of debris, the predicted regression line is not a perfect fit. There seems to be a tendency for the model to underpredict ablation rates in areas containing relatively thin debris covers while overpredicting ablation rates in areas containing relatively thick debris covers. Therefore, the different distributions of debris thickness play an important role in variation of ablation rate, so find out the distribution of debris that will provide an important basis for the glaciers change and application of the melting mode (Reznichenko et al., 2010; Ohmura, 2001).
Glacier No. 74 (41º44.64'N, 79º56.61'E) is closer to Glacier No. 72. According to Glacier Inventory of China (Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology and Geocryology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1987), the glacier number is 5Y673P0074, but perspective of ice supply, glaciers Nos. 73 and 75 should also be incorporated into Glacier No. 74, so this article referred to it as Glacier No. 74. The area of Glacier No. 74 is 9.55 km2, which is larger than Glacier No. 72. The elevation from the glacier terminal to the highest point is between 3 852 and 5 986 m a.s.l..
Glacier No. 74 is nearly covered on all of the glacier tongue and is mainly distributed in altitude between 3 852 and 4 290 m a.s.l.. The debris area of Glacier No. 74 is 2.94 km2, debris-covered surface accounts for 30.8% of the total area. According to that in Fig. 4, the vertical measure line of debris thickness is designed based on the actual situation arranged on the glacier mainstream line. The horizontal measure line laid in an altitude of 3 950–4 030 m a.s.l., respectively, according to the actual situation where the measurement point between the two horizontal measure lines is increased.
Based on the debris thickness measure data, the following is applied by GIS technology to recover spatial distribution of debris layer on the whole Glacier No. 74 (Fig. 4): The overall distribution from the vertical, the maximum thickness of debris that is in the glacier terminal, and the debris have small thickness 4 070 m a.s.l.. The thickness of debris is constantly thinning with the increasing of altitude. For the overall distribution from the horizontal, there is a regular pattern of debris thickness since both sides to the middle are diminishing. The area of debris that exceeds 4 cm is 2.12 km2, and it accounted for 22.2% on the whole glacier. The area of debris that less than 4 cm on Glacier No. 74 is 0.82 km2 with clean ice area accounted for 77.8% on the whole glacier, which is the same as Glacier No. 72.
Tuomuer Glacier (41º55.17'N, 80º0.20'E) is the largest glacier in Tuomuer Peak, western Tianshan. According to Glacier Inventory of China (Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology and Geocryology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1987), the glacier number is 5y673p0037, the elevation from the glacier terminal to the highest point is between 2 605–7 434 m a.s.l., and the area of Tuomuer Glacier 310.44 km2. It is difficult to measure the thickness of debris because of the glacier is so large. Therefore, we are only monitored the part of the glacier terminal that changed greatly, and the actual situation is designed based on the measurement point of debris thickness distributed in altitude between 2 605–3 200 m a.s.l. (Fig. 5).
According to the debris thickness measure data, the following is applied by GIS technology to recover spatial distribution of debris layer on the whole Tuomuer Glacier (Fig. 5): the overall distribution is from the vertical, the maximum thickness of debris is in the glacier terminal, and the thickness of debris is constantly thinning with the increasing of altitude. For the overall distribution from the horizontal, the debris in the west side is thicker than in the east side. The debris on the Tuomuer Glacier is thicker than other glaciers in this zone, but based on the field work, we found that it only play an important role in the decrease of area and the retreat of the terminal, and the debris layer has little effect on entire glacier thinning.
At the same time, according to the remote sensing data, the debris is nearly covered on all of the Tuomuer Glacier tongue and is mainly distributed in altitude between 2 605 and 4 000 m a.s.l.. Usually, the middle moraine will be here. The debris area of the Tuomuer Glacier is 48.53 km2, and debris-covered surface accounts for 15.6% of the total area.
The most common characteristics of glaciers in Tuomuer Peak, western Tianshan, is the presence of a debris mantle masking a large portion of their ablation zones. To figure out the source of debris in the region is the key on research spatial distribution of debris layer on the zone of Tuomuer Peak, which is based on previous studies debris of this region mainly from the following four cases (Shi et al., 2005). (1) A lot of blocks on the sidehill are taken off by ice-snow collapsed and form the englacial moraine. As a result of melting, the englacial moraine within the distribution of shallow with downward movement of the glacier is exposed, and this kind of debris mostly angular. (2) For the glacier in the long process of top-down movement, considerable parts of the debris are the original englacial moraine and the bottom moraine along the shear zones in the action of glacier compression to the ice surface, or the blocks are entrained in the glacier by glacier melting deposited on the ice surface. This kind of debris mostly has good roundness, extension of the basic zonal distribution or in the height of the ice mound. (3) The sidehill on the both sides, as the action of frost-weathering makes some blocks fall down on the ice surface and downward with movement of the glacier, this kind of debris is mostly angular. (4) As the branch of glacier converged, a lot of the lateral moraine of the branch of glacier was becoming the medial moraine, so the distribution of debris was obviously banded, and the grain size of this kind of debris is more complex. Through the field work carried out on the zone of Tuomuer Peak, more reference of the latter two cases, most of the debris layer is scattered, and the moraine form is large and loose, and they all have an effect on accelerate ablation.
This is based on the spatial distribution of debris layer on the reference glaciers (Glacier No. 72, Glacier No. 74, Tuomuer Glacier) and further by Spot-5 (5 m, 2005) high-resolution satellitic image that applied remote sensing and geographic information systems approach to research the spatial distribution of debris layer on the zone of Tuomuer Peak (Paul and Andreassen, 2009; Raup et al., 2007; Paul et al., 2004). According to Fig. 6, the debris on the zone of Tuomuer Peak is mostly covered on the glacier tongue and is mainly distributed below the altitude of 4 000 m a.s.l.. The area of debris covered approximate accounted for 14.9% on the entire glacier area in this region. Because the area of debris covered ratio and the thickness of debris are entirely smaller (except some glaciers in lower altitude), there is less continuous debris coverage and the character of absorption of heat is quick, so the debris layer impact on the glaciers ablation accelerates, instead of decreasing.
Based on Spot-5 (5 m, 2005) high-resolution satellitic image on the zone of Tuomuer Peak, we selected 113 glaciers of different sizes as the research object. The glaciers were divided into four groups according to area ratio (Table 1), the group of area between 1–3 km2 has the lowest debris coverage ratio than other three groups, the debris coverage ratio is 12.8%, and the group of area between 0–1 km2 that has the highest debris coverage ratio is 18.4%. Generally, the impact of glacier sizes on the debris coverage ratio is weak.
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The glaciers in Tuomuer Peak, western Tianshan, have slope orientation, and 113 glaciers were selected as the research object, they were divided into four groups according to slope orientation. We found that glaciers in different slope orientation have different debris coverage ratios. It is seen from Table 1 that the group of the northern slope orientation has the highest debris coverage ratio than other three groups, the debris coverage ratio is 18.4%, the group of the eastern slope orientation has the lowest debris coverage ratio is 7.9%, the debris coverage ratios of the southern slope orientation and the western slope orientation are between them, and the southern slope orientation is slightly higher than the western slope orientation. This was mainly caused by hydrothermal conditions on the different slope orientation and the possibility sources of a debris, etc..
Large glaciers have the longer glacier tongue and larger span elevation in Tuomuer Peak, but the small glaciers are mostly located in steep slopes, so we chose the glacier terminal as the evaluation criteria. It is seen from Table 1 that the debris coverage ratio on the region of different elevation varies greatly, and with the elevation of the glacier terminal increasing the debris coverage ratio showed a decreasing trend, the elevation of the glacier terminal below the altitude of 3 000 m a.s.l. has the highest debris coverage ratio, and the value is 19.6%. However, in the elevation of the glacier terminal above the altitude of 6 000 m, there is no coverage of debris. This was mainly caused by the local characteristics, glacial movement, the possibility sources of a debris, etc.
The debris layers have a very significant impact on glacier thermodynamics, and it is essential to assess exactly how their presence affects glacier responses to atmospheric changes. However, there is still a lack of models of the processes that influence debris-covered snow and ice, and quite a few energy and mass-balanced studies have been performed on debris-free glaciers. Therefore, there is still a lot of work to do on the ablation models for debris-covered glaciers in the future studies.
This article based on the spatial distribution of debris layer on the reference glaciers (Glacier No. 72, Glacier No. 74, Tuomuer Glacier) and further by Spot-5 (5 m, 2005) high-resolution satellitic image that applied remote sensing and geographic information systems approach to research the spatial distribution of debris layer on the zone of Tuomuer Peak. The conclusions are listed as follows:
(1) Based on relationship between debris cover thickness and variations in ablation rates, the critical value of the debris thickness is 4 cm in Glacier No. 72. When the thickness of debris is less than 4 cm, the debris will accelerate melting. When the thickness of debris exceeds 4 cm, the melting will decrease rapidly.
(2) Spatial distribution of debris layer on the three reference glaciers has the same characteristics: the overall distribution from the vertical, the maximum thickness of debris in the glacier terminal, and the thickness of debris is constantly thinning with the increasing of altitude. The overall distribution is from the horizontal; there is a regular pattern of debris thickness since both sides to the middle is diminishing.
(3) If there is a more consistent role in debris between glaciers Nos. 72 and 74, the debris layer on the glacier's overall effect accelerates ablation: The area of debris which exceeds 4 cm on glaciers Nos. 72 and 74 accounted for 11.7% and 22.2%, respectively, on all glacier wherein the melting will decrease rapidly. The area of clean ice and debris that less than 4 cm accounted for 88.3% and 77.8%, respectively, on the all glacier that accelerated melting.
(4) The debris on the zone of Tuomuer Peak is mostly covered on the glacier tongue and is mainly distributed below the altitude of 4 000 m; the area of debris covered accounted for 14.9% approximately on the entire glacier area in this region.
(5) Spatial distribution of debris layer on the zone of Tuomuer Peak is mainly affected by the elevation of the glacier terminal, followed by the slope orientation, the sizes, etc..
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Lin Wang, Zhongqin Li, Feiteng Wang. Spatial Distribution of the Debris Layer on Glaciers of the Tuomuer Peak, Western Tian Shan. Journal of Earth Science, 2011, 22(4): 528-538. doi: 10.1007/s12583-011-0205-6
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