| Citation: | Junaid Khan, Huazhou Yao, Junhong Zhao, Qiwei Li, Wenshuai Xiang, Junsheng Jiang, Asma Tahir. Petrogenesis and Tectonic Implications of the Tertiary Choke Shield Basalt and Continental Flood Basalt from the Central Ethiopian Plateau. Journal of Earth Science, 2023, 34(1): 86-100. doi: 10.1007/s12583-022-1729-7
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The voluminous Choke Shield basalts and flood basalts are distributed in the central Ethiopian Plateau. They are tholeiitic in composition and have OIB-like geochemical features. The ca. 23 Ma Choke Shield basalts have SiO2 (47.1 wt.%-59.6 wt.%), MgO (1.01 wt.%-7.8 wt.%), Na2O + K2O (2.7 wt.%-8.4 wt.%), and display right inclined REE patterns ((La/Yb)N = 21.4-24.2) with enrichment of Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf and Pb in the primitive mantle-normalized trace element diagrams. They show low initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.703 47-0.703 77) and high
Mantle plumes occur as large igneous provinces that represent extensively hot materials derived from the boundaries of the mantle and core (Natali et al., 2017; Burov and Gerya, 2014; Beccaluva et al., 2011, 2009; Coffin and Eldholm, 1994). In the central Gondwana supercontinent, there are three main continental flood basalt provinces, which are distributed in the Ethiopia-Yemen, Deccan, and Karoo regions (Beccaluva et al., 2011, 2009; Pik et al., 1999, 1998; Peate, 1997; Gibson et al., 1995; Melluso et al., 1995; Piccirillo and Melfi, 1988; Piccirillo et al., 1988; Hawkesworth et al., 1984). They were generated by melting mantle plume (Yao et al., 2018; Campbell and Griffiths, 1990) during 200 Ma with potential temperatures up to 1 600 ºC (Natali et al., 2017). The continental flood basalt provinces mainly consist of high-Ti and low-Ti basalts associated with minor rhyolitic rocks at the top of the high-Ti basalts (Natali et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2010; Melluso et al., 2008; Sheth and Melluso, 2008; Pik et al., 1999, 1998).
Ethiopian Plateau preserves voluminous continental flood basalts overlain by shield basalts, providing an ideal opportunity to examine their petrogenesis and geodynamic evolution (Tamirat et al., 2021; Beccaluva et al., 2011, 2009; Meshesha and Shinjo, 2008; Kieffer et al., 2004; Pik et al., 1999, 1998). Although numerous studies have been carried out on these basalts, their petrogenesis, nature of the source region, and role of continental crust are still unclear (Meshesha and Shinjo, 2008; Kieffer et al., 2004; Baker et al., 2000; Pik et al., 1999, 1998; Stewart and Rogers, 1996). This study presents new whole-rock Ar-Ar ages, major and trace elements, Sr-Nd isotopes, and clarifies the role of a mantle plume and continental crustal materials on the genesis of the continental flood basalts and Choke Shield basalts in the central Ethiopian Plateau.
Arabian-Nubian Shield was formed by the collision between the East and West Gondwana in the Neoproterozoic time(Johnson, 2014; Johnson et al., 2011; Vail, 1985). The Arabian-Nubian Shield consists mainly of Precambrian strata overlain by the Tertiary flood basalts (Furman et al., 2006; Wolfenden et al., 2004; Ukstins et al., 2002; George et al., 1998; Watchorn et al., 1998; Baker et al., 1996). The strata are composed of high-grade crystalline terrain, including various gneisses, migmatites and minor schists, and low-grade metavolcanic-sedimentary terrains (Kazmin, 1975, 1971). The flood basalts are mainly distributed in the Ethiopia and Yemen regions, derived from the upwelling mantle plume prior to the African-Arabian continental rifting (Beccaluva et al., 2009). The main Ethiopian rift (MER) bimodal volcanic suite, lacking intermediate rocks, also indicates mantle plume origin (Yao et al., 2018).
The crust and lithospheric mantle beneath the Ethiopian Plateau have a thickness of 35–44 and 70–80 km, respectively (Ayalew et al., 2016). The Ethiopian Plateau, covering an area of 600 000 km2, was formed by the extensive eruption of flood basalts at 30 Ma and shield basalts at 30–11 Ma (Kieffer et al., 2004; Hofmann et al., 1997). Voluminous flood basalts were also formed during rifting of Ethiopian Plateau at 18–11 Ma (Wolfenden et al., 2004; Tesfaye et al., 2003). Basalts from the Ethiopian Plateau consist of low-Ti tholeiitic basalts in the northwest, high-Ti tholeiitic basalts (Figs. 1a, 1b, 1c) in the center, and high-Ti translational basalt in the southeast (Beccaluva et al., 2011, 2009; Natali et al., 2011; Pik et al., 1998). The unique feature of flood basalt is columnar jointing in the vicinity of the river Nile (Fig. 1a). The continental flood basalts and shield basalts in this study were sampled surrounding Addis Ababa and along the Nile River area, respectively (Figs. 1a–1f, 2).
Major and trace elements, including rare earth elements (REE), were obtained using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) at the laboratory of Wuhan Center, China Geological Survey (CGS). For major elements, a 500 mg sample was fused with anhydrous lithium tetraborate, ammonium nitrate (as an oxidant), lithium fluoride (as flux), and lithium bromide (as flux) in a 1 : 10 sample-to-flux ratio by PANalytical Axios max XRF. Potassium dichromate titration analysis was used to determine the FeO value. The H2O concentration of a sample powder is determined by heating (1 000 ºC) in a tube furnace and then gravimetric absorption. For trace elements, 25 mg of each sample was added in 0.5 mL HNO3 and 1 mL HF, then put into the oven at a temperature of 185 ºC for 24 h. Similarly, for REE, 100 mg of each sample was digested in the mixture of HF + HCl + HNO3 + H2SO4. Trace elements with REE were analyzed using Thermo X Series-2 ICP-MS by following the procedures of Qi et al. (2000). The accuracies for major and trace element analyses are 1%–2% and 5%, respectively.
Sr-Nd isotopic analyses were performed at the geochemical laboratory of CGS (Wuhan Center). After crushing and grinding, samples pass through 200 mesh and dry in an oven for three hours at 80 ºC. 100 mg of sample was spiked using tracer solutions (85Rb + 84Sr and 149Sm + 145Nd) and then dissolved in a solution of HF, HNO3, and HClO4 separately at a temperature of 190 ºC for 48 h. Cation resin ion-exchange chromatography (Dowex508) and Di-(2-Ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (HDEHP) techniques were used to separate and purify Rb, Sr, Sm, and Nd. Thermal triton thermo-ionization mass spectrometer was used to measure the isotopic concentrations of Rb, Sr, Sm, and Nd. The isotopic ratios of Sr and Nd were corrected using 86Sr/87Sr of 0.119 4 and 146Nd/144Nd of 0.721 9, respectively. Measurements of standard NBS987 and GBW04411 gave average values of 0.710 31 ± 0.000 03 (2σ) for 87Sr/86Sr ratio and 0.512 637 ± 0.000 005 (2σ) for 143Nd/144Nd ratio, which are within the error ranges of the approved values (Ghebretensae et al., 2019).
Five representative samples from flood basalts and shield basalts were selected for 40Ar/39Ar dating using Mass spectrometer-Argus Ⅵ at the geochemical laboratory of CGS (Wuhan Center). Each sample was wrapped in aluminum foil and placed in a quartz tube with ZBH-25 biotite crystals, serving as a neutron flux monitor. More than 98% radiogenic argon can be produced at Argon extraction temperatures of 750–1 400 ºC. Argon isotope age calculations were made using the ArArCalc program (Koppers, 2002). Detailed measurement procedures are described by Qiu and Jiang (2007).
40Ar/39Ar dating results for the five basalt samples are presented in Table S1. All samples show well-resolved plateaus comprising 36%–100% 39ArK released. They underwent variable degrees of the alteration as indicated by 40Ar* loss in sample DM0104-B02 and FCD0104-B01, 39ArK recoil loss in sample FCD0102-B04, and 37ArCa recoil loss in sample DB0101-B02. Excess Ar is detected in the temperature steps of three basalt samples (DM0104-B02, DB0101-B02, FCD0104-B01), which have initial 40Ar/36Ar ratios of 300–314, probably resulting from alteration or volatiles. Therefore, the isochron ages can be used for dating the eruption ages of these basalts (Wang et al., 2009).
Samples DM0104-B02 and DB0102-B05 from the Choke Shield basalt show 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages of 21.9 and 22.7 Ma, with total fusion ages of 22.6 and 23.0 Ma, respectively. Sample DB0101-B02 has a slightly older 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 26.8 Ma and younger total fusion age of 16.5 Ma, probably resulting from alteration (Table S2; Fig. 3e). Thus, the Choke Shield basalts have eruption ages of 21.9–22.7 Ma, similar to those of the previous Ar-Ar studies (5–23 Ma; Kieffer et al., 2004; Table S2).
Sample FCD0104-B01 from the flood basalt shows a 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 24.7 Ma with a total fusion age of 43.4 Ma (Fig. 4a). Sample FCD0102-B04 has an older plateau age of 130.0 Ma with a total fusion age of 98.8 Ma and isochron age of 131.1 Ma, probably resulted from significant alteration (Table S2; Figs. 4c, 4d). Thus, the age of 24.7 Ma represents the eruption age of flood basalts, which is consistent with the previous studies (23–33.9 Ma; Kieffer et al., 2004; Coulié et al., 2003; Coulié, 2001; Hofmann et al., 1997).
Rocks from the flood basalts have low SiO2 (39.0 wt.%–50.8 wt.%), variable MgO (3.9 wt.%–11.4 wt.%) and K2O contents (0.2 wt.%–1.1 wt.%) with total alkalis (K2O+Na2O) of 1.6 wt.%–5.8 wt.% (volatile free), yielding low K2O/Na2O ratios (0.15–0.35), defining a tholeiitic series (Fig. 5; Table S3). They show right-inclined chondrite-normalized REE patterns, with light rare earth elements (LREE) enrichment ((La/Yb)N = 23.9–130) and positive to negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.84–1.3; Fig. 6d). These samples are enriched in large-ion lithophile elements (LILE) and high-field-strength elements (HFSE, e.g., Nb, Ta) (Fig. 6b). The flood basalts with Ti/Y > 364 and Nb/Y > 0.5 indicate high-Ti basalt characteristics (Fig. 7b). Their Sm/Th (0.84–3.78) and Nd/U (21.2–55.6) ratios are lower than Th/Y (0.06–0.44) ratios indicating an enriched mantle (EM) source. Samples from the flood basalt have high La/Nb (0.44–1.4), Zr/Nb (2.4–15.3), and low Th/Nb (0.05–0.12), Th/La (0.08–0.15) ratio, indicating that they were derived from an EMI source (Fig. 8).
Rocks from the shield basalts have variable SiO2 (47.1 wt.%–59.6 wt.%), MgO (1.0 wt.%–7.7 wt.%), K2O contents (0.50 wt.%–3.4 wt.%), and high total alkalis of 2.7 wt.%–8.4 wt.% (volatile free). They also show right-inclined chondrite-normalized REE patterns, with LREE enrichment ((La/Yb)N = 21.4–24.2) and negative to positive Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.9–1.2; Fig. 6c). Their primitive mantle normalized trace elements are characterized by enrichment of HFSEs (e.g., Nb, Ta), similar to those of the oceanic island basalts (Fig. 6a). Their Sm/Th (0.84–3.78) and Nd/U (21.2–55.6) ratios are also lower than Th/Y (0.06–0.44) ratios indicating an enriched mantle source. The shield basalt samples have almost low La/Nb (0.7–0.97), Zr/Nb (4.4–9.5), and high Th/Nb (0.09–0.13), Th/La (0.1–0.15) ratios, similar to those of the EMII mantle source (Fig. 8).
Initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios and εNd values of Choke Shield and flood basalts were calculated using the Ar-Ar ages of 22.7 and 24.0 Ma, respectively. The flood basalts have variable initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.703 30–0.704 44) and positive εNd values (+2.2 to +5.0), while the shield basalts are characterized by constant initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.703 47–0.703 93) ratios and much higher εNd values (+4.4 to +5.0) (Table S4; Fig. 9).
The flood basalt samples underwent a variable degree of alteration as indicated by their large variable loss on ignition (LOI = 0.07 wt.%–7.3 wt.%; Tables S3 and S5). The mobile elements Pb (40.8 ppm–1.95 ppm), K (9 448 ppm–1 698 ppm), Rb (36.5 ppm–14.5 ppm), and Ba (950 ppm–210 ppm) are negatively correlated with LOI (Fig. 10), indicating variable degrees of modification by hydrothermal alteration. By comparison, the shield basalt samples have low LOI (0.2 wt.%–0.9 wt.%) and relatively constant incompatible element concentrations, such as Cs (0.64 ppm–0.12 ppm), Rb (71.3 ppm–13 ppm), K (24 850 ppm–4 220 ppm), indicating the negligible effect of alteration. Thus, immobile elements (e.g., Al, Ca, Mg, HFSE, and REE) can be used to constrain petrogenesis of the basalts in the following discussion (Zhao and Zhou, 2007; Weaver, 1991).
Both the continental flood basalts and Choke Shield basalts have lower MgO (1.01 wt.%–11.4 wt.%) and Cr concentrations (2.7 ppm–72.6 ppm) than those of primary melts in equilibrium with mantle peridotite (MgO = 10 wt.%–15 wt.%, Cr > 1 000 ppm; Getaw and Ayalew, 2020; Ayalew et al., 2016). The samples in this study show obvious correlations in the Harker diagrams (Figs. 5a–5d), indicating strong fractional crystallization. The shield basalt samples show positive correlations for CaO and Al2O3 against MgO, indicating fractionation of clinopyroxene and plagioclase (Figs. 5c and 5d). They are highly porphyritic in texture (Fig. 1e) and dominantly plagioclase phenocrysts (Tamirat et al., 2021). Their SiO2 and TiO2 are negatively correlated with MgO (Figs. 5a and 5b), ruling out Fe-Ti oxides fractionation. By comparison, the flood basalt samples show positive correlations for CaO, Cr, Ni, and negative correlation for Al2O3 against MgO (Figs. 5c, 5d), suggesting that olivine and clinopyroxene played an important role during the fractional crystallization. Their weak Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.84–1.3) suggest plagioclase fractionation, whereas negative correlations between TiO2 and MgO argue against significant fractionation of Fe-Ti oxides (Figs. 5a and 5b).
Mantle-derived magmas generally undergo more or less crustal contamination during their ascent to the earth surface. Mafic rocks contaminated by crustal materials are rich in Zr, Hf and depleted in Nb, Ta (Rudnick and Gao, 2003). However, the continental flood basalts and Choke Shield basalts show positive Nb and Ta anomalies in the spider diagrams (Figs. 6a–6b). They have significantly lower La/Nb (0.65–1.36), Th/Nb (0.07–0.14), K/Nb (15.3–463) and Zr/Nb (4.4–15.2) ratios than those of the continental crust (2.5, 0.7, 1878, 16.5, respectively; Rudnick and Gao, 2003; Figs. 7a, 7e). In addition, these samples have low initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.703 30–0.704 44) and positive εNd(t) values (+2.2 to +5.3), which are not correlated with MgO (Fig. 9b). These lines of geochemical evidence suggest that the two types of basalts underwent minor or negligible crustal contamination.
The continental flood basalts were initially classified into high-Ti (HT) and low-Ti (LT) series (Peate and Hawkesworth, 1996; Wooden et al., 1993; Peate et al., 1992; Lightfoot et al., 1993, 1990; Hawkesworth et al., 1988). Pik et al. (1998) further classified high-Ti basalt into high-Ti1 (HT1) and high-Ti2 (HT2) series based on incompatible element ratios (e.g., Nb/Y, Ti/Y, Nb/La). The flood basalts in this study have Ti/Y (364–678) and Nb/Y (0.51–0.69) ratios similar to those of the HT1 flood basalts (352–814, 0.52–1.1, respectively; Fig. 7b). These geochemical affinities are consistent with the previous studies (Tamirat et al., 2021; Natali et al., 2017, 2016; Beccaluva et al., 2009; Kieffer et al., 2004; Pik et al., 1999, 1998).
Ocean island basalts (OIB) are generally extracted from heterogeneous mantle source, which is characterized by depleted and enriched (EMI and EMII) end-members that are formed by metasomatism of early subduction-related recycled oceanic crust (Weaver, 1991; Hart, 1988). EMI OIB formed by contamination of 5%–10% ancient pelagic sediments, have high Ba/Th, Ba/La, and low U/Pb ratios, while EMII OIB formed by contamination of 5%–10% ancient terrigenous sediments lack's Ba enrichment and has high U/Pb and Rb/Sr ratios (Weaver, 1991). Both flood and shield basalts in this study show weak enrichment of Nb and Ta in the spider diagrams, similar to OIB (Figs. 6a–6b; Zou et al., 2000; Edwards et al., 1994). They have low Sm/Th (0.86–3.78) and Nd/U (21.2–54.3), and high Th/Y ratios (0.064–0.43), indicating an enriched mantle source. The metasomatic components were probably derived from Pan-African subduction-related materials (Ayalew et al., 2016; Woldemichael et al., 2010; Zhao and Zhou, 2009; Woldemichael and Kimura, 2008). According to Wolde (1996) negative to less positive Nb and positive Rb, Sr, Pb, and K anomalies with low Ce/Pb and Nb/U ratios indicates Pan-African metasomatic components in the mantle (Ayalew et al., 2016). In this study, all samples also show negative to slightly positive Nb and Sr anomalies and strongly positive Pb anomalies in the spider diagrams (Figs. 6a–6b), as well as low Ce/Pb (1.15–22.6) and Nb/U (23.5–75.4) ratios, indicating their source region has subduction-derived components.
Most samples from the Choke Shield basalts have low La/Nb (0.7–0.97), Zr/Nb (4.4–9.5), and high Th/Nb (0.09–0.13), Th/La (0.1–0.15) ratios, and thus occupy the EMII field. Their constant initial 86Sr/87Sr ratios (0.703 466–0.703 925) and εNd(t) values (+4.4 to +5.0) suggest that their parental melts were relatively homogeneous (Figs. 8 and 9a). Although the flood basalts show similar EMI like trace elemental ratios, such as La/Nb (0.44–1.4), Zr/Nb (2.4–15.3), Th/Nb (0.05–0.12), and Th/La (0.08–0.15), they have slightly variable initial 86Sr/87Sr (0.703 53–0.704 48) ratios and positive εNd(t) values (+2.2 to +5.3) (Figs. 8 and 9a). In summary, the Choke Shield basalts were derived from the EMII mantle source, while the flood basalts originated from the EMI source associated with minor involvement of EMII components.
The mantle sources are characterized by garnet and spinel lherzolite in the deep mantle (Gurenko and Chaussidon, 1995). Heavy rare earth elements (HREE) effectively constrain the nature of the mantle source due to their compatibility with garnet (Jenner et al., 1993). The Choke Shield basalts have low Dy/Yb (1.627 3–2.045 7), La/Sm (3.42–4.74), Sm/Yb (1.75–2.32), La/Yb (7.38–8.36) ratios, suggesting that they were formed by low degrees (1%–5%) of partial melting of garnet-spinel to phlogopite-bearing spinel lherzolite (Fig. 11). By comparison, the flood basalts show higher Dy/Yb (2.01–2.89), La/Sm (2.82–8.68), Sm/Yb (2.72–5.46), La/Yb (8.26–44.95) ratios, indicating that they were generated by much higher degrees of partial melting (< 20%) of amphibole-bearing garnet to garnet-spinel lherzolite (Fig. 11).
The main Ethiopian rift zone bounded the central Ethiopian Plateau to the southeast and the red sea rift zone to the south. The voluminous basalts were generated due to the upwelling of the Afar mantle plume at the Ethiopian Plateau during 45–11 Ma (this study; Natali et al., 2017; Ayalew et al., 2016; Keranen et al., 2004; Wolfenden et al., 2004; Pik et al., 1999, 1998; Chernet et al., 1998; George et al., 1998; Hofmann et al., 1997; Marty et al., 1996; Hart et al., 1989; Brotzu et al., 1981). Extensive dike swarms are distributed in the adjacent areas of the central Ethiopian Plateau (Mège and Korme, 2004). Ethiopian flood basalt erupted during a short period of 1 Ma and formed a large volume of the volcanic plateau (Kieffer et al., 2004; Hofmann et al., 1997). Peridotite xenoliths have been discovered from basalt in the vicinity of the central Ethiopian Plateau (Ayalew et al., 2009; Ferrando et al., 2008; Conticelli et al., 1999; Roger et al., 1999). Paleo-crust is also present in the West Ethiopian Plateau (Berhe et al., 1987). Pyroclastic and trachytic lavas are interlayered with flood basalts, whereas tuffs and ignimbrites are interlayered with Choke Shield basalt (Kieffer et al., 2004; Ayalew et al., 1999). These rocks are characterized by various geochemical and Sr-Nd isotopic features, indicating that the lithosphere beneath the Ethiopian Plateau is unusually modified and heterogeneous. Both the shield basalts and flood basalts have high Zr concentrations (83.1 ppm–789 ppm) and Zr/Y (3.5–15.3) ratios, plotting in the field of within-plate basalts (Fig. 12a). They have moderate to high Nb/Yb (8.1–88.1), Th/Yb (0.8–6.1) and TiO2/Yb (0.23–3.6) ratios, extending from E-MORB to OIB (Figs. 12b and 12c). These lines of evidence suggest that two types of basalts were formed in a mantle plume-related within-plate rift setting. The hot mantle plume probably encountered enriched mantle components (E-MORB) in the asthenosphere. Thus, the upward moving hot mantle plume (OIB) starts melting E-MORB in the upper asthenosphere. The mantle plume (OIB) starts melting from garnet stability depth in the upper asthenosphere (Tamirat et al., 2021). The origin of E-MORB could be of a mantle plume beneath the asthenosphere (Ayalew et al., 2016; Meshesha and Shinjo, 2008) or could be of Pan-African subduction-related materials at ca. 794 Ma (Woldemichael et al., 2010; Woldemichael and Kimura, 2008) or could be of the sub-continental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) at spinel stability depth (Kieffer et al., 2004). The lithosphere, underlain by the Ethiopian Plateau, contains veins of EMI, EMII, and HIMU (Ayalew et al., 2016). The EMI type high-Ti flood basalt magmas of the central Ethiopian Plateau were probably generated in the deep melting zone of the mantle plume at 26 Ma, while the EMII type Choke Shield basalt magmas may be originated from the shallow melting zone of the mantle plume at 21–24 Ma (Fig. 13).
(1) The Choke Shield basalts (22–21 Ma) and continental flood basalts (23 Ma) of the central Ethiopian Plateau show OIB-like geochemical features. The Choke Shield basalts were formed by low degrees (1%–5%) of melting of garnet-spinel to phlogopite-bearing spinel lherzolite, whereas the flood basalts were formed by high degrees (< 20%) of partial melting of amphibole-bearing garnet to garnet-spinel lherzolite.
(2) The shield basalts were from the EMII type mantle source at the shallow mantle plume, while the flood basalts originated from the EMI type source in the deep mantle plume.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: This work was supported by China Commerce Ministry (foreign-aid project (2007)420) and China Geological Survey (Nos. DD20190443, DD20160109). We thank all project members from Wuhan Center, China Geological Survey. Special thanks go to the Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Ethiopia for their support during work. We also thank the Journal of Earth Science Editorial Office and the anonymous reviewers for critical comments and constructive suggestions, which improved the quality of the paper. The final publication is available at Springer via https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-022-1729-7.| Aldanmaz, E., Pearce, J. A., Thirlwall, M. F., et al., 2000. Petrogenetic Evolution of Late Cenozoic, Post-Collision Volcanism in Western Anatolia, Turkey. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 102(1/2): 67–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00182-7 |
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