| Citation: | Zhiliang He, Shuangjian Li, Yingqiang Li, Jian Gao. Multi-Directional and Multiphase Tectonic Modification, and Hydrocarbon Differential Enrichment in the Middle-Upper Yangtze Region. Journal of Earth Science, 2022, 33(5): 1246-1259. doi: 10.1007/s12583-022-1738-6
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Based on the analysis of the deformation styles in different tectonic belts of the Middle-Upper Yangtze region, as well as the dissection of typical hydrocarbon reservoirs, this study determined the controlling effects of deformations on the hydrocarbon accumulations, obtaining the following results. The Middle-Upper Yangtze region experienced significant deformations during the Late Indosinian (T2–T3), the Middle Yanshanian (J3–K1), and the Himalayan, and five styles of tectonic deformations mainly occurred, namely superimposed deep burial, uplift, compressional thrusting, multi-layer decollement, and secondary deep burial. The distribution of hydrocarbon reservoirs in the piedmont thrust belts is controlled by the concealed structures on the footwall of the deep nappe. The gentle deformation area in central Sichuan experienced differential uplift, structural-lithologic hydrocarbon reservoirs were formed over a wide area. The eastern Sichuan-western Hunan and Hubei deformation area experienced Jura Mountains-type multi-layer detachment, compressional thrusting, and uplift. In relatively weakly folded and uplifted areas, conventional structural-lithologic hydrocarbon reservoirs have undergone adjustment and re-accumulation, and the shale gas resources are well preserved. In the strongly deformed areas, conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs were destroyed, while unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs have been partially preserved. The marine strata in the Jianghan Basin experienced compression, thrusting, and denudation in the early stage and secondary deep burial in the late stage. Consequently, the unconventional gas resources have been partially preserved in these strata. Secondary hydrocarbon generation become favorable for conventional hydrocarbon accumulations in the marine strata.
The Middle–Upper Yangtze region, which is located in the Tethyan tectonic domain, is key area for marine hydrocarbon exploration in southern China. Since the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, this region has undergone the superimposed modification by Indosinian, Yanshanian, and Himalayan tectonic events, confined by the Qinling orogenic belt to the north, the Jiangnan fold-uplift belt to the southeast, and the Longmenshan orogenic belt to the west. As a result, the hydrocarbon reservoirs in this region generally experienced modifications, adjustment, re-accumulation, and dislocation. Since the tectonic deformations in different tectonic belts involved different strata and had different intensities and styles, the hydrocarbon exploration prospects in different tectonic belts have significantly different (Zhang et a., 2020; He et al., 2017a, 2011; Ma et al., 2006).
The Middle-Upper Yangtze region features numerous hydrocarbon shows, which mainly include surface asphalt, oil seeps, gas seeps, and hydrocarbon shows in boreholes (Fig. 1). Natural gas reservoirs have been presently discovered at different Sinian–Triassic horizons in the Sichuan Basin, with proven natural gas reserves of approximately 6 × 1012 m3. Moreover, a series of paleo-oil reservoirs have been discovered in vast areas outside the Sichuan Basin. More than 1 800 hydrocarbon shows are present in this region. They cover all Sinian–Triassic marine strata and are widely distributed in the Sichuan Basin and its periphery, as well as Yunnan-Guizhou-Guangxi, western Hunan and Hubei, the Jianghan Plain, and the periphery of the Jiangnan-Xuefeng uplift (Chen et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020; Xu, 2012; Li Z X et al., 2011; Lou et al., 2006). Based on the systematic analysis of the phases and styles of tectonic deformations since the Mesozoic in the Middle-Upper Yangtze region, this study determined the phases and styles of tectonic modifications in this region. Moreover, by combining the latest exploration achievements, this study analyzed the controlling effects of different tectonic modification styles on hydrocarbon accumulations and proposed the future hydrocarbon exploration directions in this region through the dissection of typical reservoirs.
During the Middle–Late Triassic, the Indosinian Movement related to the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean is a key event that caused the large-scale orogeny and intracontinental deformation in the Middle–Upper Yangtze region and its periphery (Yu et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2013). Specifically, the regional tectonism (e.g., the collision between the Yangtze Block and the North China Block along the Qinling, the subduction of the Paleo-Jinshajiang Ocean, and the collision and interaction between the Indochina and the Yangtze blocks) caused the initial formation of the Micangshan-Dabashan orogenic belt, the Longmenshan-Jinpingshan thrust belt, and the Jiangnan-Xuefeng orogenic belt at the northern, western, and southeastern margin of the Sichuan Basin, respectively (Chen et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 1996). As a result, angular unconformities occurred within the Middle–Late Triassic strata and between these strata and their overlying strata (Fig. 2). The Indosinian collisional orogenesis surrounding the northern, western, and southern margins of the Yangtze Block completely changed the sedimentary environment and the geotectonic landform of the Yangtze Block. The Sichuan-Yunnan foreland basin was accordingly developed. The typical sedimentary suites of the foreland basin were preserved in the piedmont of the Longmenshan at the western margin of the Sichuan Basin. Moreover, Late Triassic coal-bearing molasse-like sediments with a thickness of thousands of meters were deposited on the sedimentary suites. Although intense orogeny occurred in the periphery, most areas of the Middle-Upper Yangtze region did not experience noticeable fold deformations, and conformable contacts exist within most Triassic strata and between the Triassic and the Jurassic strata. The significant angular unconformity in the piedmont belts appears in the central-northern section of the Longmenshans. It is an angular unconformity between the third and fourth members of the Late Triassic Xujiahe Formation and was previously called the Anxian Movement (Liu et al., 2011; Wang, 1990). This angular unconformity influenced the northwestern Sichuan, indicating that the thrust nappe structure began to take shape in the central-northern section of the Longmenshan during the Middle–Late Triassic.
The Middle-Upper Yangtze region was tectonically stable during the Early and Middle Jurassic. During the drifting period under the Neo-Tethys Ocean tectonic regime, a large offshore continental depression basin was formed in the Middle-Upper Yangtze region. From the late stage of the Middle Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous, the Chinese continent suffered multi-directional plate convergence and multiphase intense intracontinental orogeny. Accordingly, the Middle-Upper Yangtze region underwent multi-directional compressional deformations and basin modifications (Jin et al., 2013). During this period, the most important intracontinental orogeny occurred in the southern Qinling area at the northern margin of the Sichuan Basin. The northern Dabashan thrust belt compressed southwestwards, leading to the formation of the Dabashan foreland arc-shaped tectonic belt. Meanwhile, due to the westward subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Ocean to the east in southeastern China, the Xuefengshan basement uplift was reactivated and compressed the backland of the Yangtze Block, resulting in the development of the trough-comb-like arc-shaped tectonic belt in the eastern Sichuan and the Sichuan-Chongqing-Guizhou-Guangxi areas (He, 2020; Shen et al., 2020). This arc-shaped tectonic belt deformed jointly with the Dabashan arc-shaped tectonic belt in northeastern Sichuan, forming a dual arc-shaped structure, which appears as a horn with an east mouth (Yan et al., 2009). From the late stage of the Middle Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous, the Longmenshan tectonic belt at the western margin of the Sichuan Basin was also thrust and reactivated, and a set of hugely thick Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous molasse-like conglomerate strata were deposited in the piedmont of the tectonic belt. The strong deformation caused by multi-directional compression during this period transformed the Late Triassic–Middle Jurassic morphology of the Sichuan Basin and shaped the structural-geomorphic profile of the basin. Moreover, the major basement faults in the Sichuan Basin were reactivated and controlled the structural styles of sedimentary cover. It was determined that the Jura Mountains-type fold belt in eastern Sichuan-western Hunan and Hubei was formed during the Late Jurassic based on the strata involved in the fold belt and the unconformities (Song et al., 2014). The area from the Cili-Baojing-Tongren-Sandu fault at the northwestern margin of the Xuefengshan to the Qiyueshanin eastern Sichuan generally suffers the omission of Early Cretaceous strata, which are in angularly unconformable contact with the overlying strata (Fig. 3). The direct evidence of the Middle-Yanshanian orogeny at the western margin of the Sichuan Basin is a set of hugely thick Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous molasse-like sedimentary suites developing along the piedmont, which record the reactivation of the Songpan-Ganzi orogenic belt in the west of the basin. Therefore, the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous is the dominant deformation period of multiple tectonic belts at the periphery of the Sichuan Basin (including the western Hunan-Hubei area, the Dabashan area, and the Longmenshan area).
The Late Yanshanian–Early Himalayan movement during the Late Cretaceous–Paleogene occurred as an extensional movement in the Middle Yangtze region. The strong extension contributed to the formation of an intracontinental fault basin. Under the extensional regime, some early reverse faults inverted their original movement direction, forming a small fault basin with the extensional scale gradually decreasing from east to west (Wo and Wang, 2009). This extensional event had slight effects on the upper Yangtze region, leading to the weak deformation of the Cretaceous strata. After the Late Cretaceous, the Sichuan Basin started to be uplifted overall, with the north and east uplifted earlier than the south and west based on a large amount of apatite fission track chronological evidence (Shi and Shi, 2014; Li S J et al., 2011, 2008). Following the uplift, several hydrocarbon-generating kitchens in the marine strata of the Sichuan Basin and its periphery ceased to generate hydrocarbons and the oil and gas traps were consolidated. Moreover, the secondary hydrocarbon generation of marine source rocks also occurred in the Cenozoic faulted depression in the south of the Jianghan Basin (Wang et al., 2009).
Since the Neogene, the Tibet Plateau has been rapidly uplifted as the Indian Plate intensely extruded the Chinese continent. Accordingly, the Middle-Upper Yangtze region has been generally uplifted and eroded. The NE-trending fold-thrust belt in the Longmenshan continued to extend towards the Sichuan Basin. Moreover, the Quaternary foreland basin was developed in the central-southern section of the Longmenshan due to the strong thrusting. The Xuefengshan nappe system led to the formation of the high and steep anticline group in eastern Sichuan. A large number of apatite fission tracks evidence that the rapid uplift since the Neogene, especially since 20 Ma, widely occurred in the Middle-Upper Yangtze region (Li et al., 2020; Zou et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2017). Neogene is a key tectonic deformation period for final formation of the hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Owing to many factors (e.g., the tectonic compression strength of the peripheral orogenic belts, basement properties, and the decollement layers of the sedimentary cover), the tectonic deformations in the Middle-Upper Yangtze region are roughly characterized by strong thrusting and short-distance decollement at the western and northern margins, weak thrusting and long-distance decollement at the southeastern margin. Based on deformation intensities and styles differences, the Middle-Upper Yangtze can be divided into five tectonic deformation belts, namely the Longmen-Micang-Daba-Dahongshan piedmont thrust belt (LMDD piedmont thrust belt), the western-northern Sichuan piedmont depression belt (WNS piedmont depression belt), the gentle tectonic belt of central Sichuan, the eastern Sichuan-central Guizhou and western Hunan and Hubei-Xuefeng multi-layer decollement-fold deformation belt (SGHHX multi-layer decollement-fold deformation belt), and the Jianghan Basin tectonic-inversion and modification superimposed belt (JHB tectonic-inversion and modification superimposed belt) from the piedmont to the basin backland (Fig. 1).
The Longmenshan thrust-fold belt shows distinct transverse segmentation and longitudinal stratification. It can be divided into the northern, central, and southern sections in the transverse direction and shows the layered deformations in the longitudinal direction under the control of two decollement layers in the basement and the Middle–Lower Triassic anhydrite-bearing rocks (Chen et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2018; Jin et al., 2007; Liu et al., 1994; Fig. 4). The northern section of the Longmenshan thrust-fold belt has a typical imbricate thrust structure consisting of the Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous–Permian, and Middle–Lower Triassic strata from top to bottom. Moreover, imbricate fans are developed inside the Middle–Lower Triassic strata, resulting in the presence of repeated layers above and below the Feixianguan Formation. The foredeeps of these imbricate thrust series appear as short-axis linear anticlines, with the concealed area present as duplexes. The piedmont belt of the northern section is mainly composed of Jurassic clastics, and its outcrops mainly include monoclinal structures. The high and steep strata in the piedmont belt gradually become gentle toward the basin area, and the concealed area has developed imbricate blind thrust faults, fault-related folds, triangle zones, and pop-up structures (Fig. 4a). The central section of the Longmenshan thrust-fold belt also shows the deformations of noticeable imbricate thrusts overall. The piedmont belt of this section is mainly composed of the clastic rocks. Its inside has a series of developed imbricate thrust faults and related folds, which transition to gentle monoclinal structures towards the basin. Its concealed area has developed fault-related folds, triangle zones, and pop-up structures. The southern end of the central section has been noticeably involved in thrust deformations. Moreover, reverse faults have generally developed along the anticline cores of this section (Fig. 4b). As for the southern section of the Longmenshan thrust-fold belt, the NW-SE-trending thrusting does not noticeably cease at the piedmont faults. As a result, the piedmont belt of this section shows intense thrust and fold deformations distinguish from those of the northern section and most of the central section. The basement of the southern section is not noticeably involved in the deformations, which mainly consists of thin-skinned thrust structures including some fault-related folds and triangle zones. The outcrops in the southern section mainly appear as relatively wide folds, with the anticline cores being frequently accompanied by thrust faults (Fig. 4c).
The Micangshan is an important part of the Qinling orogenic belt and mainly has a nearly EW strike. The southern margin of the Micangshan can be divided into two deformation belts, namely the basement-involved imbricate thrust belt and the piedmont monoclinal belt from north to south (Fig. 5a). Among them, the imbricate thrust belt shows the outcrops of the Pre-Sinian basement and the Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic marine clastic and carbonate. The tectonic modifications in this imbricate thrust belt are dominated by large thrust faults and fault-related folds. The piedmont monoclinal belt is sediments of a Late Triassic–Early Cretaceous foreland basin and mainly consists of continental clastics. The outcrops are dominated by monoclines and NNE-trending large-scale uplifts and depressions. The thrust faults in the piedmont belt mostly detach upwards to the gypsum-salt decollement layers and conceal downwards in the thick-laminated Silurian argillaceous shale or deeper strata. The roof faults of the gypsum-salt layers and the footwall faults of the basement constitute the typical passive-roof duplexes or the Ⅱ-type triangle zones in the front of the Qinling-Dabie orogenic belt.
The Dabashan piedmont-foreland thrust belt, which mainly lies in the transition belt between the Sichuan Basin and the Qinling orogenic belt at the northern margin of the Upper Yangtze region, is an arc-shaped tectonic belt that protrudes southwestward overall. Multiple decollement layers have developed in this thrust belt, including the Triassic, Silurian, Cambrian, and Sinian decollement layers. They show distinct multi-detachment characteristics and can be divided into deep, moderately deep, and shallow detachment structures. The deep detachment structures are controlled by the Pre-Sinian and Sinian decollement layers. The moderately deep detachment structures are controlled by the Sinian and Triassic decollement layers and form duplexes between the Sinian decollement layers and the Triassic decollement layers. The shallow detachment structures are controlled by the Triassic decollement layers and form fault-propagation folds. They appear as comb- and trough-like anticlines on the surface (Fig. 5b).
The Dahongshan imbricate thrust-nappe belt is connected to the Dabashan foreland thrust belt in the west and is generally parallel to the arc-shaped tectonic belt of the Xiangfan-Guangji fault. It is an imbricate thrust-nappe structure, composed up by Neoproterozoic basement and Lower Paleozoic strata. The decollement layers in this imbricate thrust-nappe belt mainly include the Silurian argillaceous shale and the unconformity between basement and sedimentary cover. They are dominated by multi-layer thrust detachment vertically, mainly appearing as the detachment faults in basement and duplexes. During the Late Cretaceous–Tertiary, the Dahongshan thrust-nappe belt experienced tectonic inversion due to the extensional regime in eastern China, forming many faulted depressions on its front (Fig. 6).
Under the influence of the large-scale Late Triassic and Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous orogenies, the western and northern margins of the Middle-Upper Yangtze region experienced foreland flexural subsidence, leading to the deposition of continental clastics with a thickness of up to thousands of meters. As a result, the WNS piedmont depression belt was formed. This piedmont depression belt has a simple structure and is composed of deep depression belts and slope belts. However, due to the superposed multidirectional tectonism during Late Yanshanian–Himalayan, late tectonic deformations were formed locally, such as the Xinchang structure in the western Sichuan depression and the Jiulongshan and the Tongnanba structures in the northern Sichuan depression.
The central Sichuan gentle tectonic deformation belt is bounded by the Longquanshan fault to the west, the Huayingshan fault to the east, the Langzhong-Dazhou area to the north, and the Sichuan Basin's edge to the south. This tectonic belt has developed on the ancient rigid metamorphic basement and experienced Caledonian, Hercynian, Indosinian, Yanshanian, and Himalayan movements, causing vertical uplift and subsidence. A large paleo-uplift developed during the Caledonian, with the omission of Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous strata. Then the Central Sichuan gentle tectonic belt has been tectonically stable since the Hercynian, when Permian Jurassic strata have been continuously deposited. Despite weak vertical tectonic deformations, deeply rooted faults are developed in this tectonic belt and mainly include the strike-slip faults with a small slip distance formed by the Caledonian, Hercynian, and Himalayan movements (Jiao et al., 2021).
The NE- and NEE-trending tectonic systems in western Hunan and Hubei and western Hubei-eastern Chongqing were formed by the basement detachment of the Jiangnan uplift and the SE-NW-trending thrust napping. Tectonic deformations progressively decrease from the western Hunan and Hubei to western Hubei-eastern Chongqing and then to eastern Sichuan. Specifically, they mainly include the basement detachment in the Xuefeng-Wuling area, the thick-skinned compression and detachment in western Hunan and Hubei, the layered compression as deformation transition in western Hubei-eastern Chongqing, and the thin-skinned compression and detachment in eastern Sichuan (eastern Chongqing) from southeast to northwest. The thick-skinned compression and detachments appeared as cut anticlinoria, imbricate and backthrust structures. By contrast, the area with thin-skinned detachment has complete Jura Mountains-type fold system with back thrusts developed at anticline cores. The Xuefeng northern-margin thrust-fold belt (the NXF thrust-fold belt) refers to the tectonic area from the Shimen-Cili-Baojing fault on the northwest side of the Jiangnan-Xuefeng uplift to the Qiyueshan fault in the western Hubei-eastern Chongqing area. It has a NEE-NE strike and a width of approximately 220 km and appears as an arc that bulges northwestward. The NXF thrust-fold belt is composed of the tectonic belts including the Sangzhi-Shimen synclinorium, the Yidu-Hefeng anticlinorium, the Huaguoping synclinorium, the Enshi anticlinorium, and the Lichuan synclinorium from southeast to northwest. The anticlines in the NXF thrust-fold belt generally appear as wide boxes, with Cambrian–Ordovician strata outcropping in their cores. Moreover, the Neoproterozoic basement is involved in some parts of the NXF thrust-fold belt. The synclines in the NXF thrust-fold belt, which are asymmetric and even overturned, are linear and narrow and their cores mainly consist of Upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata. The anticlines and synclines are distributed in an alternating manner, constituting a trough-like structure. From the southeast to the northwest, the NXF thrust-fold belt shows a decrease in folding intensity, uplifting amplitude, and the ages of the outcrops at the cores of the anticlines and synclines (Fig. 7b). The eastern Sichuan thrust-fold belt from the Huayingshan fault in the west to the Qiyueshan fault in the east has a width of approximately 170 km. The outcrops in this thrust-fold belt mainly include Triassic, Jurassic, and Lower Cretaceous strata. The folds in the eastern Sichuan thrust-fold belt are mostly linear. The anticlines in this belt are generally narrow, with steep and tight strata. Generally, each of them has asymmetric wings, one of which steeply dips or even overturns. Moreover, they have complex inner structures and even decompose in some structural layers. The synclines in this thrust-fold belt generally have wide axis, gentle drawer-shaped strata, and relatively simple inner structures. The alternating tight anticlines and the gentle and wide synclines, together with decollement layers such as the Silurian, constitute a comb- and trough-like structure. Most of the basement in this thrust-fold belt is not involved in the sedimentary cover (Fig. 7a).
Under the influence of the Dahongshan arc-shaped tectonic system, the northern Jianghan Basin is dominated by the north-dipping single thrust structures, with a few south-dipping single thrust faults occurring in the south. This phenomenon indicates that the Indosinian–Early Yanshanian deformations of the sedimentary cover of the Jianghan Basin generally transitioned from the foreland thrust-fold belt at the northern margin of the basin to the foreland basin at the southwestern margin of the basin, with the deformation intensity gradually decreasing and the deformations showing a forward spreading pattern. The tectonic styles include fault-propagation folds and fault-bend folds, both of which have small displacement. Most of the folds underwent superposed compressive stresses in the late stage. As a result, the previously formed folds suffered late thrusting, which destroyed most of their cores. Accordingly, the imbricate fans of the thrust sheet type were formed. During the Late Yanshanian–Himalayan, the single-thrust frontal belt underwent negative inversion due to the regional extensional regime, causing the formation of half-graben combinations such as the Hanshui and the Jingmen sags (Fig. 6).
Based on the sedimentation, burial, and uplift history of strata, as well as the tectonic deformations and their control over hydrocarbon accumulation factors, this study divides the tectonic modifications since the Meso-Cenozoic in the Middle-Upper Yangtze region into compressional thrusting, multi-layer detachment, uplift and denudation, superimposed deep burial, and secondary deep burial. These five styles are present in a single or combined manner in different tectonic deformation belts, posing important effects on the formation and distribution of hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Since the Late Triassic, with the gradual closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and the development of the Longmenshan, Micangshan, Dabashan, and Dahongshan foreland basins and the Sichuan-Yunnan intracontinental basin, hugely thick continental clastics have been deposited in the Middle-Upper Yangtze region, producing superimposed deep burial effects on the marine strata in the region. The superimposed deep burial effects accelerated the hydrocarbon generation and evolution of marine source rocks. As a result, the crude oil that accumulated in traps or dispersed in reservoirs in the early stage thermally cracked into natural gas. Moreover, the superimposed deep burial effects compacted reservoirs and accordingly weakened the fluid activity, thus hindering large-scale hydrocarbon accumulations. The current exploration results show that conventional oil and gas in the piedmont depression belts are mainly trapped in intra-sag uplifts, such as the Jiulongshan and the Tongnanba structures in the northern Sichuan depression, and the Xinchang structure in the western Sichuan depression (Wang et al., 2020; Ma et al., 2010). The oil and gas migrate upward from the Upper Triassic and Jurassic hydrocarbon kitchens to the Jurassic–Cretaceous sandstone reservoirs along faults, forming secondary structural, lithologic, and composite hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Uplift and denudation exist in every tectonic deformation belt of the Middle-Upper Yangtze region. Moderate uplift and denudation are favorable for conventional and unconventional hydrocarbon accumulations. Low potential energy areas and fractures formed by unloading of the overlying strata releases facilitate oil and gas migration. Therefore, uplift and denudation are especially significant for hydrocarbon accumulation and the high production. Moreover, moderate uplift is favorable for the accumulation of free gas in shale, and the resultant microfractures can significantly increase the effectiveness of hydraulic fracturing. The triaxial rock mechanics tests used to simulate reservoir conditions yielded the following results. When the burial depth of the argillaceous shale in the Silurian Longmaxi Formation exceeded 4 200 m, the argillaceous shale tended to deform in a plastic fashion, natural fractures were difficult to form, and induced fractures were prone to close. When the burial depth was 4 200‒1 500 m, the argillaceous shale was a brittle-plastic transition belt (Li et al., 2016), and fractures were formed and remained open and thus were the most conducive to shale gas accumulations and hydraulic fracturing (He et al., 2019, 2017b, 2016). The shale gas fields in the Sichuan Basin that have been put into production, such as the Fuling, Weirong, Changning, and Zhaotong fields, all have a burial depth of 4 200‒1 500 m. In addition, for conventional gas fields, moderate uplift causes natural gas dissolved in water to degas, forming well-defined gas-water interfaces. Both the Weiyuan and the Anyue Sinian gas fields in central Sichuan were affected by moderate uplift. Studies (Wang et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2008) have shown that the Weiyuan structure was formed during the Neogene and that both methane and helium in the Sinian strata in the Weiyuan structure result from the degasification of water-soluble gas.
However, large-scale uplift and intense denudation breach and destruct hydrocarbon reservoirs the most, especially in the western Hunan and Hubei-central Guizhou. Large numbers of strata have been eroded due to intermittent uplift since the Yanshanian and especially the rapid uplift during the Late Himalayan. The Silurian and older strata in anticlines or anticlinoria are directly exposed, with the Upper Paleozoic or Triassic–Jurassic strata only remaining in tight synclines. As a result, large numbers of hydrocarbon reservoirs have been destroyed, and oil and gas seeps and paleo-oil reservoirs widely occur (Fig. 1). In contrast, the wide and gentle synclines or the low and gentle slope areas around paleo-uplifts can still preserve hydrocarbon accumulations. Although most of the conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs have been destroyed, the shale gas in source rocks and the tight gas adjacent to source rocks are partially preserved in these areas. However, the pressure of the strata in these areas equals the atmospheric pressure or is negative due to the uplift-induced pressure release, leading to low single-well daily production and estimated ultimate recovery (EUR) and low economic benefits.
Compressional thrusting mainly occurs in some major piedmont belts, where strongly deformed basement near mountains is involved in thrust belts and the sedimentary cover is fragmented or forms high-amplitude, steep, and inverted folds after being cut by faults. As a result, hydrocarbon reservoirs are destroyed, with surface oil seeps or bitumen frequently occurring. Typical hydrocarbon reservoirs breached and destroyed by intense folding and thrusting include the Tianjingshan and the Kuangshanliang paleo-oil reservoirs in the Longmenshan thrust belt, the Micangshan paleo-oil reservoir in the Micangshan thrust belt, and the Jingshan paleo-oil reservoir in the Dahongshan thrust belt. In contrast, the front of the piedmont thrust belts suffered weak compression. Consequently, less basement in the front is involved. Moreover, the thick decollement layers of gypsum-salt rocks or mudstones in the front absorbed a larger portion of tectonic strain, and thrusting creates fault-fold structures in deep parts. Therefore, thick decollement layers tend to have good preservation conditions and are favorable targets for oil and gas exploration. For example, the Zhongba and the Shuangyushi gas fields in northwestern Sichuan and the Pengzhou-Yazihe gas field in western Sichuan are all hydrocarbon reservoirs controlled by the concealed thrust folds on the footwall of the piedmont nappes (Wang et al., 2021; Wen et al., 2021).
The Middle-Upper Yangtze region has widely developed Middle Cambrian and Middle‒Lower Triassic gypsum-salt rocks and Lower Cambrian and Lower Silurian mudstones. These soft rock strata are favorable decollement layers, which can absorb a lot of tectonic strain and result in thickened local strata and different tectonic deformations in the vertical direction. For example, the Jura Mountains-type tectonic deformation in the eastern Sichuan-western Hunan and Hubei-Xuefengshan area, which extends hundreds of kilometers, results from multi-layer detachment. In general, this area features increasingly young decollement layers, gradually decreased deformation scale and intensity, and gradually improved hydrocarbon preservation conditions from southeast to northwest. Owing to the deposition of high-quality Middle–Lower Triassic anhydrite-bearing sedimentary cover, the preservation conditions of the decollement deformation belts inside the Sichuan Basin have been roughly preserved, except for in local areas where the gypsum-salt layers are eroded or where the faults extend to the surface. A range of adjusted structural gas reservoirs, such as Dachigan, Wolonghe, and Wubaiti, have been discovered along the high and steep anticlines in eastern Sichuan (Xu et al., 2011), where the shale gas in the synclines and slope areas mostly occurs in an overpressured state. The transition belt between comb- and trough-like deformations at the margin of the Sichuan Basin has poor hydrocarbon preservation conditions for conventional gas reservoirs. However, the unconventional gas reservoirs in this transition belt are located at favorable burial depths and are well preserved, making this transition belt the most favorable target area for shale gas exploration. For example, the giant Fuling shale gas field is located in this transition belt.
The Jianghan Basin lies in the superimposed tectonic inversion belt in the Middle Yangtze region. Owing to intense thrusting and folding during the Yanshanian, the hydrocarbon preservation conditions of the marine strata in the basin have been severely undermined. Under the Late Cretaceous–Paleogene extensional regime, early fractures reversed and slid downward, forming an extensional faulted basin and improving the hydrocarbon preservation conditions of the marine layers. In particular, the late-stage deep burial and induced warming effects caused the marine source rocks that had stopped generating hydrocarbons in the early stage to reach the hydrocarbon generation threshold again. As a result, newly generated oil and gas in the late stage could accumulate again. The Zhujiadun gas reservoir in the Lower Yangtze region is a typical example of this accumulation model (Chen et al., 2001). The marine source rocks in Qianjiang, Mianyang, and Jiangling sags in the southern Jianghan Basin may have conditions for secondary hydrocarbon generation (Li Z X et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2009). These sags have similar accumulation conditions to the Zhujiadun gas reservoir and thus have good exploration potential.
Overall, the Middle-Upper Yangtze region shows the characteristics of differential tectonic deformations and modifications and orderly hydrocarbon accumulations from the piedmont thrust belt at the western margin of the Sichuan Basin eastward to the Jianghan Basin. Transversely, the breached paleo-oil reservoirs in the strongly deformed area transition to the structural gas reservoirs in the moderately deformed areas and then to the structural-lithologic gas reservoirs in weakly deformed areas. Longitudinally, the hydrocarbon reservoirs in this region consist of primary-quasi-primary gas reservoirs at the deep or ultra-deep intervals, in-situ or dislocated gas reservoirs at moderately deep intervals, secondary gas reservoirs at moderately deep-shallow horizons, and breached paleo-oil reservoirs near the surface. Shale gas in this region also has a similar distribution pattern. In the strongly deformed area, shale gas has been significantly destroyed, and only the normal-pressure shale gas is preserved in synclines or the slope areas of paleo uplifts. In the moderately deformed area, shale gas is abundant and productive at appropriate burial depths. The weakly deformed area generally has deeply buried shale, a high formation pressure coefficient, and high gas content. However, reservoirs in this area are difficult to stimulate and have low single-well EUR due to the lack of micro-fractures. Therefore, this study dissected large numbers of conventional and unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs discovered in the Middle-Upper Yangtze region. Based on this, this study summarized the hydrocarbon accumulation models in the foreland deformation zone in western Sichuan, the differential uplift zone in central Sichuan, the decollement deformation zone in eastern Sichuan, the compressional uplift zone in western Hunan and Hubei, and the inverted deep burial zone in the Jianghan from the angle of the styles and intensities of tectonic deformations and the static elements and the dynamic process of hydrocarbon accumulations (Fig. 8).
The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the foreland area have undergone various tectonic modification such as thrust, deep burial, uplift and denudation. The thrust belt is a strong deformation area with poor hydrocarbon preservation conditions and developed destroyed reservoirs, such as Tianjingshan destroyed oil reservoir. The footwall of the Piedmont nappe has developed in-situ structures, with good hydrocarbon preservation conditions, and developed quasi primary hydrocarbon reservoirs, such as Shuangyushi Permian gas field in and Pengzhou Triassic gas field. The Piedmont depression experienced weak structural deformation and deep buried. Tight gas reservoirs have been found in local anticline and fault development areas, such as Xinchang Triassic–Jurassic gas field (Fig. 8a).
Paleouplift inherited since the Caledonian period in Central Sichuan gentle deformation belt, which is a favorable direction for hydrocarbon accumulation. Paleouplift has experienced differential uplift and denudation since the Himalayan period, which created conditions for local enrichment. Structural lithologic composite gas reservoirs and shale gas fields are developed in the uplift area, such as Anyue Sinian–Cambrian gas field and Weirong Silurian shale gas field. Lithologic gas reservoirs are developed in the gentle structural belt of the uplift slope area, such as Moxi Permian gas field (Fig. 8b).
The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the multi-layer detachment deformation zone of eastern Sichuan are controlled by the extrusion thrust and multi-layer detachment. The adjustment in the high and steep anticlines is strong, and destoryed oil reservoirs, secondary gas reservoirs are developed, such as Dachigan and Wubaiti Carboniferous gas reservoirs. The wide and gentle synclines experienced weakly deformation, and the lithologic gas reservoirs and overpressure shale oil and gas reservoirs are mainly developed, Such as Tailai Permian gas reservoir and Fuxing Jurassic shale oil and gas reservoir (Fig. 8c).
The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the thrust detachment deformation zone of Eastern Sichuan, Western Hubei and Eastern Chongqing are controlled by strong compressive thrust, Conventional gas reservoirs preservation conditions are destroyed. Shale gas reservoirs and tight gas reservoirs are developed in stable anticlines and synclines, such as Jiaoshiba, Pengshui Silurian shale gas field and Permian tight gas reservoir of well Anye 1 (Fig. 8d).
The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Middle Yangtze tectonic inversion and modification superimposed belt are controlled by thrusting, uplift and secondary deep burial. The tectonic deformation at the margin of the Mesozoic–Cenozoic fault basin is intense, and the conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs are destroyed. Normal pressure shale gas reservoirs are developed in the local stable areas, such as the Cambrian shale gas of well EYY1 and the Silurian shale gas of well EYY2. In the fault basin, due to the secondary deep burial, the Paleozoic source rocks regenerated, new hydrocarbon reservoirs can be formed, such as the Cretaceous reservoir of well M31 (Fig. 8e).
The Middle-Upper Yangtze region, which is located in the southern China-Yangtze Plate, is an important part of the Tethyan tectonic domain. The three major evolutionary stages of the Proto-, Paleo-, and Neo-Tethys Ocean created favorable hydrocarbon accumulation conditions in this region. Specifically, this region has multiple sequences of high-quality source rocks with marine, marine-continental transitional, and continental facies, large-scale carbonate and clastic reservoirs of multiple genetic types, and the high-quality cap rock composed of two sets of gypsum-salt rocks and multiple sets of shale. These source rocks, cap rock, and reservoirs form three major reservoir assemblages, namely the marine lower, the marine upper, and the continental assemblages, thus laying a solid foundation for hydrocarbon accumulations. The unique basement structures and the multi-style tectonic deformations in the late stage led to variable combinations of accumulation elements and complex accumulation processes. As a result, almost all types of conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs and various occurrence styles of unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs have been formed, making the Middle-Upper Yangtze region an encyclopedia of oil and gas geology. This region is proven to have great exploration potential and development prospects with the successive discovery of conventional oil and gas fields represented by the Puguang, Yuanba, Anyue, and western Sichuan and the large-scale exploitation of tight sandstone gas fields such as the Xinchang and Guang'an. The Wufeng-Longmaxi formations in this region have become a model of the large-scale discovery and the commercial exploitation of shale gas followed by the North America.
The conventional oil and gas exploration in the Middle-Upper Yangtze region is in its early peak stage. Moreover, the shale oil and gas exploration in this region is still growing, and many exploration targets with huge potential have been mapped. The potential exploration targets in the marine lower assemblage include platform-margin and intra-platform shoals of the Dengying Formation, the Cambrian intra-platform high-energy shoals and composite structural-lithologic traps, the Ordovician high-energy shoals and Duyunian karst reservoirs, the Silurian tight sandstones and limestones, the Cambrian shale gas, and the deep normal-pressure shale gas of the Wufeng-Longmaxi formations. The potential exploration targets of the marine upper assemblage include the Upper Paleozoic karst reservoirs, the Permian reservoirs under the joint control by faults and hydrothermal solutions, Permian tight carbonate reservoirs, and the Permian multi-layer shale gas. The potential exploration targets of the continental assemblage include the deeply concealed anticline traps in the piedmont thrust belts, the local uplifts and deep fault development areas in the piedmont depression belts, the tight sandstone reservoirs of the syncline areas between anticline belts, shale oil and gas in the Xujiahe Formation and the Middle–Lower Jurassic strata.
(1) Since the Meso-Cenozoic, the Middle-Upper Yangtze region has experienced tectonic deformations of greatly different styles and intensities under the influence of the multi-directional and multiphase tectonic modifications by the Longmenshan, the Qinling-Dabieshan, and the Xuefengshan. Three major distinct tectonic deformations in this region occurred during the Late Indosinian (T2–T3), the Middle Yanshanian (J3–K1), and the Late Himalayan.
(2) Five tectonic deformations areas can be divided in the Middle-Upper Yangtze region. namely the Longmen-Micang-Daba-Dahongshan (LMDD) piedmont thrust belt, the Western-Northern Sichuan (WNS) piedmont depression belt, the gentle tectonic belt of central Sichuan, the eastern Sichuan-central Guizhou and western Hunan and Hubei-Xuefeng (SGHHX) multi-layer decollement-fold deformation belt, and the Jianghan Basin (JHB) tectonic-inversion belt.
(3) Five styles of tectonic modifications have mainly developed in the Middle-Upper Yangtze region, namely superimposed deep burial, uplift and denudation, compressional thrusting, multi-layer decollement, and secondary deep burial. Overall, the Middle-Upper Yangtze region shows the characteristics of differential tectonic deformations and modifications and orderly hydrocarbon accumulations from the piedmont thrust belt at the western margin of the Sichuan Basin eastward to the Jianghan Basin.
(4) The Middle-Upper Yangtze region is an important part of the Tethyan tectonic domain. Three major evolutionary stages of the Proto-, Paleo-, and Neo-Tethys Ocean contributed to the formation of three major reservoir assemblages in this region, namely the marine lower, the marine upper, and the continental assemblages. The conventional oil and gas exploration in this region is in its early peak stage. The shale oil and gas exploration in this region is still growing, and many exploration targets with huge potential have been mapped.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: This paper is dedicated to our alma mater, the China University of Geosciences for its 70th anniversary. Wish our respected alma mater a prosperous future. This study is jointly funded by the National Natural Science Foundation (Nos. U19B6003, U20B6001, 9175520021, 42002137) and Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Strategic Leading Science & Technology Program (No. XDA14000000). This study received attention and guidance from multiple experts and researchers, including academicians Zhijun Jin, Chengzao Jia, Yongsheng Ma, Fang Hao, and Xusheng Guo. Many companies provided massive valuable basic data for this study, including SINOPEC Exploration Company, SINOPEC Southwest Oil & Gas Company, SINOPEC Jianghan Oilfield Company, SINOPEC East China Company, and some companies of the China National Petroleum Corporation. Moreover, this study received great support and assistance from relevant scientific research institutes at home and abroad. We would like to extend our gratitude to all of them. The final publication is available at Springer via https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-022-1738-6.| Chen, A. D., Wang, W. J., Yue, K. G., et al., 2001. Gas Source of Zhujiadun Gas Field, Yancheng Basin and Its Discovery Significance. Petroleum Exploration and Development, 28(6): 45–49, 13 (in Chinese with English Abstract) doi: 10.3321/j.issn:1000-0747.2001.06.013 |
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Zhiliang He, Shuangjian Li, Yingqiang Li, Jian Gao. Multi-Directional and Multiphase Tectonic Modification, and Hydrocarbon Differential Enrichment in the Middle-Upper Yangtze Region. Journal of Earth Science, 2022, 33(5): 1246-1259. doi: 10.1007/s12583-022-1738-6
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