Figure
1.
Locality map of the Shaiwa Section, Sidazhai Town, Ziyun County, Guizhou Province.
| Citation: | Yongqun Gao, Fengqing Yang, Yuanqiao Peng. Characteristics of Late Permian Deep-Water Sedimentary Environments: A Case Study of Shaiwa Section, Ziyun County, Guizhou Province, Southwestern China. Journal of Earth Science, 2005, 16(1): 1-10.
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Sediments of carbonate gravity flows and terrigenous debris turbidites, and normal bathyal deposits were found at the Shaiwa Section, Ziyun County, Guizhou Province, southwestern China. Through grain size analysis of some typical sediments at this section, the changing patterns of the grain parameters and the grain size cumulations were recovered.Resultsshow that the study area was deposited under turbidite control during the Late Permian period, which we also recognized at the outcrop section upon sedimentary characteristics of the sediments. In addition, fossils are abundant in the Upper Permian of the Shaiwa Section, including radiolarians, sponge spicules, bivalves, brachiopods, ammonoids and trace fossils. Radiolarians and siliceous sponge spicules are typical deep water assemblages. Bivalves are dominated by genera of Hunanopecten and Claraia, both showing deep water living characteristics. Ammonoids are composed of planktonic types, showing characteristics of smooth and flat shells. Brachiopods are dominated by a small and thin shelled assemblage, which are commonly flat in shape and usually of slight ornamentations on shells. In addition, trace fossils found at the Shaiwa Section are also common types of deep water facies. Thus, the fossil evidence of the Shaiwa Section also suggests a deep water environment, possibly from the bathyal slope to the basin margin facies, of the studied area during the Late Permian period.
The Shaiwa Section is located in the town of Sidazhai, Ziyun County, Guizhou Province, southwestern China (Fig. 1). This area belongs to the Nanpanjiang basin of the Yangtze platform. A great deal of work purely on the subdivision of the strata has been carried out in this region (Guizhou Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1987). However, studies on recoveries of the paleoenvironments of this area are rarely reported. Due to rifting and subsidence during the Late Permian period, a set of fine debris deposits with huge thickness was highly developed in this area, consisting of sandstones, siltstones, mudstones, limestones and silicates.
The deposits of the Shaiwa Section are about 762 m thick and were totally assigned to the Shaiwa Group by previous workers (Guizhou Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1987). The Shaiwa Group of the Shaiwa Section has recently been subdivided into 96 beds in ascending order (Fig. 2). They were further subdivided into four members according to different sedimentary characteristics (Gao et al., 2001) : Member 1 (Beds 2-26), Member 2 (Beds 27-48), Member 3 (Beds 49-74) and Member 4 (Beds 75-95). The ammonoid genus Tauroceras found in Member 1 is typical of the Wuchiapingian of South China (Gao et al., 2001; Yang and Gao, 2000). Clarkina wangi (=C. subcarinata of Hao et al., 1997) has been reported from probably the top of Member 2 of the Shaiwa Section, the first appearance of which marks the beginning of the Changhsingian at the Meishan Section (Jin et al., 2003). Other typical Changhsingian fossils found at the Shaiwa Section include conodont Clarkina changxingensis and bivalves Hunanopecton exilis and Claraia primitiva (Gao et al., 2001; Yang and Gao, 2000). Thus, the Late Permian deposits of the Shaiwa Section can be subdivided into Wuchiapingian and Changhsingian, which is bounded at the base of Bed 49 (Gao et al., 2001). Based on characteristics of the sedimentary structures and the fossils found in the strata, the sedimentary environment of the Shaiwa Section during the Late Permian is systematically recovered herein, providing new evidence for the recovery of the paleogeography of this area.
The strata developed at the Shaiwa Section are grouped into three types based on their differing sedimentary characteristics and structures. They are sediments of carbonate gravity flows and terrigenous debris turbidites, and normal bathyal deposits.
This type of deposit is well developed in the Upper Permian of the Shaiwa Section. According to the flow-support mechanism reflected by their sedimentary structures and textures, they are further subdivided into debris flows of carbonates and turbidites. The former type is more commonly developed than the latter at the Shaiwa Section.
This type of deposit is mainly developed in Member 4 of the Shaiwa Section. The sediments of calcirudites in Beds 75, 76, 88 and 89 all belong to this type. Thick-bedded to massive calcirudites have no grain-size sequences and beddings, and locally they are intercalated with cherty nodules. Some gravels were found to be irregularly mixed in these sediments, primarily sub-angular to sub-rounded, 2-30 mm in length, about 80 % in content and usually decreasing upwards. Some long-shaped gravels show a certain orientation as well. The gravels are composed of micrites, bioclastic limestone, lithic carbonates and a few silicalites. Among them, bioclastic limestone is dominant, accounting for 50 % of the content, and containing fossils of corals, foraminifers, crinoids and sponge-spicules, which are good materials for the recovery of the paleoenvironments of the sediments (details below).
This kind of deposit is not commonly developed at the Shaiwa Section. They can only be found in Beds 59, 65, 89 and 90, and only parts A and B of the Bouma sequence can be recognized among them. Part A of the Bouma sequence is composed of grey middle to thick-bedded gravel-bearing micrites, locally containing pyrites, with obvious normal graded beddings from coarse to fine. Extended groove casts were found at the bottom plate of Bed 65, showing directions of flows when they were deposited. The gravels, usually 1-2 cm in length and about 10 % in content, mostly sub-angular, with their long-axes basically horizontally extended, are composed of the same constituents of the sediments of the debris flows. Part B of the Bouma sequence is composed of grey muddy limestones, contacting gradually with part A of the Bouma sequence below.
Sediments of gravity currents are mainly composed of terrigenous turbidites at the Shaiwa Section. They are highly developed and especially common in Member 2 and Member 3 at this section, sharing more than 50 % of all the sediments.
These turbidites are composed of intercalated sandstones, siltstones and mudstones, forming rhythmites of different degrees. The thickness of the rhythmites ranges from several centimeters to several meters. Usually the large rhythmites contain some small ones and/or the small rhythmites are connected with the large ones, forming a set of repeated rhythmic associations with huge thickness. These deposits are stably developed at the Shaiwa Section, and usually parts A, B, D and E of the Bouma sequence are recognized in them.
Part A of the Bouma sequence is composed of rocks of graded beddings. It is not well developed or not easy to recognize at the Shaiwa Section due to the very fine size of the sediments. Sediments containing part A of the Bouma sequence are composed of gravel-bearing fine sandstones, with abundant silty grains. The gravels in them are usually irregular, and composed of products of the former formed turbidites washed out by gravity currents when the latter turbidites containing the gravels were formed.
Part B of the Bouma sequence at the Shaiwa Section is composed of lithic siltstones, from several millimeters to several tens of centimeters in thickness. The grains in part B are arranged with a certain orientation, and are mostly of parallel beddings. Micro-horizontal beddings formed by the size variations of the grains are locally found. Because part A is not well developed at the Shaiwa Section, part B usually appears to be the base of a Bouma sequence and abruptly contacts with the underlying strata.
Part D of the Bouma sequence shares similar characteristics with part B, though the grains of part D are even finer. It is dominated by politic sandstones and silty mudstones, with well-developed micro-beddings of several centimeters thick or sometimes even up to 30-40 cm thick. Part D is the most common part of the Bouma sequence appearing at the Shaiwa Section and even locally in the study area, which formed most of the bases of the Bouma sequences at the Shaiwa Section.
Part E of the Bouma sequence is dominated by clay minerals, mixed with a few silty quartz, feldspars and calcites. Some horizontal beddings formed by the banded distribution of the grains and minerals are locally found at the Shaiwa Section. This part is thought to have been formed in a very static environment.
The Bouma sequences developed at the Shaiwa Section show the following characteristics. Firstly, part A and part C are usually not well-developed or even not developed, and the recognized part A is usually unclearly grade-bedded. Secondly, most of the Bouma sequences are based by part B or part D. Thirdly, most well-developed Bouma sequences are composed of parts D-E or parts B-D-E, and the former is the most common.
The grains of the Shaiwa Section are composed of fine clastics, generally less than 2ϕ (0.25 mm) and larger than 4ϕ (0.0 625 mm) in size (ϕ here means a kind of length unit, 
To reveal the sedimentary environments of the grains at the Shaiwa Section, a thin section grain-size statistical method was applied to study the grains in Beds 29, 44, 55, 56 and 81. The parameters of grains defined by Folk and Ward (1957) were recovered (Table 1).
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The parameters of grains at the Shaiwa Section show the following characteristics. Firstly, average grain size (MZ) is more than 4ϕ, belonging to the siltstone grade. This kind of small-sized grain is one of the main features of the turbidites in the study area. Secondly, the standard deviations (σ1) of the grains vary from 0.5 to 4.0, including different grain assorting types from good, medium, bad to very bad. However, the average σ1 is 1.119 5, falling into the bad assorting type. Thirdly, the distorted degrees (SK1) of the grains vary from -1.00 to 1.00, including extreme negative deviation, negative deviation, near symmetry and extreme positive deviation types. The average is -0.005 5, falling into the near symmetry type. Fourthly, the kurtoses (KG) of the grains vary from 0.67 to 3, including wide, medium and narrow types. The average is 0.980 2, falling into medium normal distribution. Fifthly, according to the equation Y=0.721 5MZ-0.403 0σ12+6.732 2SK1+5.292 7KG proposed and used by Saku (1964) to evaluate the environments of river deposits and turbidites, all the environmentally discriminated values (Y) of samples collected from the Shaiwa Section are less than the critical value of 9.843 3 between river deposits and turbidites. So the deposits studied from the Shaiwa Section belong to the sediments of turbidites, which accords well with observation of the outcrop section.
Three transporting patterns of grains, including traction, skip and suspension, were defined by Visher (1969) according to the differences of logarithm frequency cumulative curves of grains. There are clear differences of the probability graphs among sand bodies of different formations. The shapes of the cumulative curves are controlled by changes of factors such as the hydrodynamic condition of the transporting media, the natural geographical condition and the components and sizes of the grains transported, etc..
There are two types of grain diagrams of sandstones recovered from the Shaiwa Section. One is the single continuous line type and the other is the single broken line type. (1) The single continuous line type: This type of curve consists of only one single line (Fig. 3), belonging to the deposits transported by suspension (visher, 1969). The shape of this single line curve obtained from the Shaiwa Section is similar to the turbidite grain curve reported by Visher (1969), with the exception of the gradient. The gradient of Visher's curve is a little bit lower (42°) than ours. The sedimentary rate is one of the reasons for turbidites of different gradients. The gradient of the grains at the Shaiwa Section is a little bit higher because the sedimentary rate of turbidites is lower at this section. The results above show that the grain sizes at the Shaiwa Section are commonly very small and were transported by suspension, so the sedimentary rate of those grains is relatively slower, showing their transport from the distant source area of the turbidites. (2) The single broken line type: This type consists of two crossed lines (Fig. 4), similar to Glaister's grain size cumulative curve of turbidites (glaister, 1974). The only difference between the two is the size of the grains, which are smaller at the Shaiwa Section. The two lines of the curve in Fig. 4 represent two different transportations and sedimentations of grains respectively. The average intercept point is 3.5ϕ (about 0.1 mm), showing the skiptransportation of coarser grains and a gradient of 63°. Viewed from the grain sizes of the intercept point, the grains larger than 0.1 mm were transported by skipping, sharing 22 % of all the grains, others were transported by suspension, with a gradient of 51°.
The normal bathyal deposits are composed of silicalites and mudstones at the Shaiwa Section, usually interbedded with the turbidite beds. There are clear horizontal beddings and pyrites contained in the silicalites and mudstones. Some pelagic planktonic fossils, such as radiolarians and sponge-spicules are found in the silicalites. There are some trace fossils and ammonoids showing deep-water living characteristics found in the mudstones (details in below). Consequently, the normal bathyal deposits at the Shaiwa Section were formed in deep-water environments during the intervals of turbid currents.
Characteristics of organisms are usually mirrors for their living environments. There are abundant fossils found in the Upper Permian of the Shaiwa Section. The study of these fossils helps to understand and recover the Late Permian paleoenvironment in the study area. Consequently, fossils like radiolarians, sponge-spicules, brachiopods, bivalves, ammonoids and trace fossils found at the Shaiwa Section are examined and discussed below.
Abundant radiolarians were found at the Shaiwa Section (Table 2, Fig. 2). The radiolarians are grouped into 6 genera and 11 species (including sp. indet.), identified as genera of Ishigaum, Latentifistula, Follicucullus, Nazarovella, Entactinosphaera and Ormistonella (Feng et al., 2000). According to studies on the ecology of Permian radiolarians from South China by Feng and his colleagues (Feng et al., 1995; feng, 1992), Follicucullus, a planktonic type, was widespread in the bathyal and abyssal seas. Radiolarians such as Ishigaum, Latentifistula and Nazarovella are also abundant in bathyal environments and limited in the deep sea and the continental shelves. Their appearance and abundant distribution are one of the markers of bathyal environments.
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Siliceous sponge-spicules are mainly found in the silicates and siliceous mudstones of Members 1 and 4 of the Shaiwa Section, consisting of types of monaxon, diaxon and triaxon. Siliceous sponges are considered to live mainly in deep-water environments usually associated with radiolarians and ammonoids. Sometimes, for example in Bed 80 of the Shaiwa Section, sponge-spicules are highly abundant, probably showing a natural ecological assemblage of the sponges preserved in situ. The siliceous sponge-spicules are characterized by low differentiation, representing their limited living environments of outer continental shelf to bathyal seas. This kind of environment is usually considered to be the early stage of a faulted basin (Feng et al., 1995).
The bivalves of the Shaiwa Section are dominated by genera of Hunanopecten and Claraia. Hunanopecten species are very small in size (usually about 1 cm) and round in shape, with deep byssal notches and concentric lines well developed, showing living characteristics of pseudo-plankton (yin, 1985). The species of Hunanopecten are also commonly found in the Late Permian siliceous sediments in eastern Guizhou and Guangxi, showing their deep-water characteristics in a different way (yin, 1985).
Claraia species are also round in shape, with very thin shells and deep byssal notches extending downward into the shell, with expanded and almost circular embayment and narrow necks. According to the coeval ammonoids and the wall rocks (usually argillaceous rocks or marls), Yin (1985) proposed a pseudo-planktonic environment for the Late Permian Claraia species. Similar Late Permian Claraia species were also found at Fushui, Guangxi (Yang et al., 1987), Linlang, Yunnan Province (guo, 1985; yin, 1982) and Zhenglin, Guizhou Province (Yang et al., 2001). These areas were all located in deep-water environments during the Late Permian period according to the Late Permian paleogeographic recovery of South China (Gao et al., 1999; Yang and Wang, 1995). The Claraia species in the Shaiwa Section were all collected from siltstones or silty mudstones, usually associated with sponge-spicules, radiolarians, swimming ammonoids, and small and thin-shell brachiopods, showing their deep-water living characters as well.
In addition, some Pernopecten species have also been found at the Shaiwa Section. According to Zhang (1990), the adults of this genus are possibly random movable types, which can swim for a short distance during their living period. The bivalve assemblage at the Shaiwa Section belongs to the bathyal habitat types divided by Yin et al. (1995).
The Late Permian ammonoids at the Shaiwa Section are composed of only 6 genera: Agathiceras, Pseudogastrioceras, Propinacoceras, Eothinites, Retiogastrioceras and Qianjiangoceras (Table 3). The fossil samples are usually badly broken, with only one specimen identified to species (Q. multiseptatum). The former three genera are the main components of this ammonoid assemblage. This assemblage is far different from those collected from the Yangtze platform (Yang et al., 1987). In the South China epicontinental sea, Anderssonceratidae and Araxoceratidae are dominant during the early Late Permian, showing characteristics of ear-like umbilical borders, while Tapashanitidae and Pseudotirolitidae are dominant during the late Late Permian, showing characteristics of well-developed ribs and nodes on their lateral sides. However, ammonoids at the Shaiwa Section are dominated by Medlicottidae, Agathiceratidae and Paragastrioceratidae. Their shells are usually smooth and flat in shape, belonging to planktonic types. This kind of ammonoid is slowly evolved and widely distributed in the flysch clastics, and usually distributed in deep pericontinental seas, marginal slope facies or basins on the paleotectonic and paleogeographic reconstruction. They belong to the open sea types defined by Zhou (1985).
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The brachiopods found at the Shaiwa Section are dominated by small and thin shelled ones. They are usually flat in shape and of slight ornamentation. In this brachiopod assemblage, there are no cavity dwellers like species of lingulids which can endure the unstable intertidal environments, no fossils of thick and heavy shells which can bear high-energy waves, and short of typical planktonic types in stagnant waters. Besides pseudo-planktonic bivalves of pectinacea, other associated faunas with the brachiopods such as bryozoans and crinoids of 1-2 mm in volume, are favorite of argillaceous substrates. So the brachiopods found at the Shaiwa Section were epibiont types which lived on soft substrates like mud or sands of relatively low hydrodynamic conditions, also showing a relatively deep-water environment.
Trace fossils of 12 genera were found at the Shaiwa Section, distributed in 9 beds (details in Table 4). They are Protopaleodictyon, Megagrapton, Dendrotichnium, Nereites, Lophoctenium, Chondrites, Planolites, Phycodes, Gordia, Paleoscolytus, Glockeria and Macanopsis. The first 5 genera are easy to find in flysch sediments of deep-water facies, while the following 5 can be found in different facies. Trace fossils of Protopaleodictyon, Megagrapton and Nereites are the common elements in the deep-water Nereites facies. According to the habitats of the tracemakers, at the Shaiwa Section, the crawling feeding traces share 50 % of the total, pascichnia 30 % and agrichnia 20 %. According to the relationship between depth and trace fossils proposed by Ekdale and Bromley (1984), the current ichonological assemblage reflects characteristics of bathyal continental slope facies. Glockeria are usually found under the continental slope Zoophycos zone and Macanopsis are coprolites formed under static environments. Consequently, the trace fossil assemblage at the Shaiwa Section represents deep-water environments of the middle part of the continental slope. According to biofacies defined by Yin et al. (1995), the trace fossil assemblage of the Shaiwa Section represents a deep water sedimentary environment of more than 200 m during the Late Permian period.
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Viewed from the sedimentary types developed at the Shaiwa Section, the study area is thought to be a deep water sedimentary environment during the Late Permian period. The fossil assemblages found at the Shaiwa Section also show characteristics of deep water living environments. The fossil evidence at the Shaiwa Section has also subdivided the strata into two separate sedimentary periods, the Wuchiapingian and the Changhsingian, which are bounded at the base of Bed 49 (Gao et al., 2001; Yang and Gao, 2000). The sedimentary environments of the Shaiwa Section are recovered and discussed below, in Wuchiapingian and Changhsingian respectively.
This period was dominated by bathyal slopes with two short bathyal basins (Fig. 2). Sediments of the bathyal slope facies include Beds 2-4, 12-18 and 21-48. The main sedimentary types in this sedimentary environment are turbidites of terrigenous debris, which are composed of siltstones and mudstones not equally interbedded to form rhythmites of different types, forming parts A, B, D and E of the Bouma sequence.
The mudstones in this part are usually black in color and contain abundant pyrites, showing a reduced sedimentary environment. Fossils are very rare in these mudstones. Abundant fossils were found in the siltstones. They are brachiopods of detrital and eurytopic facies such as Orthothetina, Cathaysia, Acosarina, Crurithyris; bivalves such as Hunanopecten and Claraia; trace fossils of deep-water flysh facies such as Nereites and Dendrotichnoum; and ammonoids of wide sea type such as Agathiceras and Pseudogastrioceras. Though the fossils are relatively abundant, the fossil diversities are very low, and their sizes are smaller than those found in other strata of the same period. Sandstones are not common in the Wuchiapingian in the studied area, and they are usually interbedded with siltstones and mudstones which formed some certain rhythmites. Fossils of small and thin-shelled brachiopods and bivalves, and some trace fossils were rarely found in the sandstones in this part. There are muddy gravels contained in those sediments during the Wuchiapingian, reflecting the scouring of the turbidites to the substrates.
Sediments of normal bathyal basin environments include Beds 5-11 and 19-20. They are dominated by thin-bedded mudstones and silicates interbedded. Very few fossils, sometimes a few radiolarians and sponge-spicules, were found in them.
In all, during the Wuchiapingian, the study area changed twice from slope facies to basin, and then resumed to slope facies at the end of the Wuchiapingian (Fig. 2).
The Changhsingian environment of the Shaiwa Section can also be subdivided into bathyal slope facies and normal bathyal basins. Sediments of bathyal slope facies include Beds 49-77 and 88-90. They are composed of debris flows of carbonates, carbonate turbidites and turbidites of terrigenous debris.
Debris flows of carbonates are grey, thick-bedded to massive, calcirudites. The gravels in them extend with a certain orientation, containing mixed fauna of Middle Permian corals Ipciphyllum laosense (Patte) and Late Permian brachiopods and corals. These are typical of bathyal slope environments.
Carbonate turbidites are dominated by gravel-bearing limestones, which, together with mudstones, formed parts A and B of the Bouma sequences.
Turbidites of terrigenous debris are composed of siltstones and mudstones. The siltstones usually contain gravels, yielding small and thin-shelled brachiopods Crurithyris which are common in deep water environments. Bivalve genera of Hunanopecten and Claraia are also common. The mudstones contain eurytopic brachiopods, small bivalves and ammonoids, and deep water trace fossils such as Lophoctenium, Megagrapton, Protopaleodictyon.
Sediments of normal bathyal basin environments include Beds 77-87 and 90-95. The deposits are interbedded with grey to black thin-bedded silicates and grey thin-bedded siliceous mudstones. The silicates contain a few sponge-spicules and radiolarians, occasionally with some silicated bivalves and conodonts. The mudstones yield few fossils, sometimes with a few bivalves and trace fossils such as Glockeria that are usually distributed under the Zoophycos facies of slope environments, and coprolite Macanopsis that formed under stable water environments.
At the start of the Changhsingian, the study area followed the slope environment of the Late Wuchiapingian. A set of debris flows of carbonates formed in the Middle Changhsingian. The water became deeper and deeper in the Middle and Late Changhsingian, which gradually formed the bathyal basin. Another set of gravity flows of carbonates formed at the late Changhsingian, and the water became deepest at the end of the Changhsingian, reflected by the interbeds of silicates and mudstones (Fig. 2).
According to analyses of the sedimentary and paleontological characters, the Upper Permian of the Shaiwa Section, Ziyun County, Guizhou Province, southwestern China is considered to belong to the deep-water environments from the continental slope to the marginal basin. The situation of deep-water environments developed in the studied area is related to strong riftogenesis during that time. With the riftogenesis getting stronger and stronger, deposits of the shelf facies changed continuously to more and more deep-water facies from Wuchiapingian to Changhsingian, forming large-scale sediments of debris flows and turbidites.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT: This work is part of the research programs supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 40172012 and 40232025). Peng Yuanqiao acknowledges the support of the Australian Commonwealth Government and Deakin University for the award of an International Postgraduate Research Scholarship (IPRS) to PYQ.| Ekdale, A. A., Bromley, R. G., 1984. Cretaceous Chalk Ichnofacies in Northern Europe. Proceedings of the First International Congress of Paleoecology, Lyon, France, July 1983. Geobios Special Memoir, 8: 201-204 |
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Yongqun Gao, Fengqing Yang, Yuanqiao Peng. Characteristics of Late Permian Deep-Water Sedimentary Environments: A Case Study of Shaiwa Section, Ziyun County, Guizhou Province, Southwestern China. Journal of Earth Science, 2005, 16(1): 1-10.
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